 
The goal of scientific writing is effective communication, communication of abstract propositions, logical arguments, empirical observations, experimental results, and their interrelations and interactions. Clear organization, as well as lucid and precise writing, are very important conditions for such communication. This guide is designed to help you produce clear and well written papers, no matter what the topic or format.
Writing papers in psychology is much like writing papers in any other discipline. Nevertheless, in psychology, there are a number of different types of papers which may be required. As always, it is best to consult with your instructor, or carefully read the syllabus, to know what is expected of you in any particular course. The following provides a brief description of the types of papers which may be assigned. Report. In a report, a student is expected to accurately and concisely convey the arguments contained in the book or article read. There is no interpretation in most reports. Instead, the goal is to summarize what the author has said. Review. In a review, one analyzes a work written by someone else. Generally, the thesis of the paper is either agreement or disagreement with the position taken by the author. The opening paragraph provides a brief synopsis of the book or article ending with a thesis statement which states your evaluation. The body of the paper then presents the arguments and associated evidence justifying your viewpoint. Critical Analysis. A critical analysis is known by a number of different names. It is sometimes called a literature review, a policy paper, or even simply a term paper. In a critical analysis, the point of the paper is to integrate a number of works by different people relevant to a specific topic or issue. In many ways, it combines and extends the type of writing contained in reports and reviews. Like a report you must accurately present the positions of others and like a critical analysis your evaluation of that body of research and/or theory is critical. A critical analysis usually begins with an opening paragraph which presents the problem or topic in general terms. The opening should lead the reader to a clear thesis statement which is often the final sentence in the opening paragraph. The thesis statement should indicate what you intend to show in the paper. Thus, the thesis should take a position. The body of the paper then presents the arguments you will use to justify your thesis. What is important is that you use research/theory to justify your position. You must interpret the research/theory rather than simply report it. Interpretation means that you must explain how a particular finding or method is relevant to your thesis statement. Everything contained in a critical analysis should help you justify your thesis. Research Proposal. Some courses require research proposals. Since the format for the proposal may depend on the course for which it is written, it is important to ask the instructor for any special instructions. In the absence of special instructions/requirements, the following should apply. A research proposal has two basic sections. The introduction has as its basic goal the presentation and justification of a testable hypothesis. The opening paragraph of a research proposal generally identifies a problem and indicates the independent variables of the proposed study. The final paragraph of a research proposal usually provides a brief narrative description of the proposed research and ends with a statement of the hypotheses to be tested. Given that you now have a general sense of where to begin (the opening) and where you want to end (the hypotheses), the trick is figure out how to get there from here. The purpose of the body of the paper is to justify the hypotheses through a careful analysis of the available research and theory. Thus, the body of the paper must review the research relevant to the independent variables in your proposal. Again, interpretation of the research rather than simply reporting is the goal. You must state what the research means for the hypotheses you are trying to develop. A research proposal is successful if a reader can easily understand how your interpretation of the research/theory led you to the specific hypotheses presented. The second section, titled methods, describes the way you are planning to test the hypotheses. It is frequently sub-divided into sections titled, subjects, design, and procedure. Individual instructors may ask for additional sections. Check to see that you are following the instructor's recommendations. Lab Report. A lab report usually contains the same sections as a research proposal with the addition of a results section which contains the data and a discussion which addresses the implications of the data for the hypotheses which prompted the study. Instructors generally have a format for lab reports. Check with the instructor for the format to use in that course.
Writing the Paper Choosing a topic. If your professor has given you a list of suggested topics, of course, take those suggestions seriously. Often, however, you are asked to choose a topic on your own. One way to do this is to step back from your day-to-day immersion in the course and take a broad view of the course content, the breadth of the topics covered, their meaning to you, and their application to your experience, or to "real world" situations that interest you. Examining your textbook from this perspective, skimming its table of contents, index, and chapter subheadings (especially those chapters you haven't read yet), can be very helpful, and should help you decide on a topic that will sustain your interest and enthusiasm. It is also helpful at this stage to look for a topic that, perhaps from class lectures or your text, you know generates controversy or interesting questions, or leaves you room to participate in problem solving. Once you have some preliminary ideas, read what is readily available on the topic in your text or the library. Talk to other students and with your professor. Remember that the professor can be a major resource and should be approached early in the process to help you clarify your choice. However, do not expect your professor to welcome a visit which begins with, "I can't think of anything to write a paper on." Professors much prefer directing your thinking to doing it for you! It is important to select a topic which is appropriate in terms of its level of difficulty. A topic which is too broad will lead to a superficial paper without an adequate focus. A topic which is too narrow will make it difficult for you to find enough relevant material, or what you discover may be too complex for you. What is appropriate will also depend upon the level of your course. Some examples will illustrate this problem. Too Broad: Emotional disturbances schizophrenia Too narrow: Habit disorder in children speech problems in childhood schizophrenia Better: Behavioral models of causal factors in emotional disturbances schizophrenia One test of the appropriateness of your topic will be the amount of relevant material you can find in the library. If you find too little, the topic may be too narrow; if you feel overwhelmed by the amount available, it may be too broad. Searching the literature. Establish early the level of sophistication you expect to achieve with the topic you have chosen. If you are really interested in, or expect to achieve, a state of the art knowledge in the area, you will need to start early and search the literature systematically. Frequently, professors set criteria for the minimum number of books, journals, or magazines cited. Bear in mind that asking questions such as: "How many references do I need?", or "How long should my paper be?", is comparable to asking, "How long is a piece of string?" Teachers give answers only to insure adequate work and to avoid having many unnecessarily long papers. The amount of information available and its relevance to the goals of your paper will more appropriately determine the length of your reference list. Refer to the section of this manual that deals with the library to get some hints on how to proceed. Start with a preliminary look at the subject catalog for book holdings and check recent issues of the indexes and abstracts most likely to cover your topic to see if there is at least some literature available. You may find that the library's findings must be supplemented by interlibrary loans. This should cause no major difficulty if you allow sufficient time for materials to be located and sent. Reading and organizing. As you read the literature concerning your topic, proceed by systematically taking notes; be sure to record what you feel is important. It is easy to get absorbed in the reading and to move on to other materials without pausing to take notes. However, every good writer needs to accumulate notes carefully before attempting to write a paper. It is very helpful to write notes on index cards so they may be reordered at a later date. Substantive notes summarizing a study or article can be written in the form they might be used in your paper. For instance, after reading a 10 page research report in a journal, your note could summarize the key points in a paragraph that begins: By consistently taking the time to do this with material that has a high probability of being included in your paper, your literature review will largely be done when you sit down to write the paper. One word of caution is in order, however. Some detail oriented students get trapped by their note taking. They report finding it hard to screen their reading for importance or relevance and consequently write down everything they read. Some also find it hard to focus their reading and study in one area only; they end up with enough material for several papers instead of one. All of your reading and note taking need to be guided by an ever evolving game plan and goal for the paper. After you have decided on a topic, collected the relevant research, and taken notes, you have to think about writing the paper. The following are some points to consider as you begin to write. The Audience. Before you begin to write, ask yourself, "For whom am I writing this paper?" Your answer to this question will determine the amount of detail included in the paper and the amount of sophistication of the writing. For example, think about how you would present any topic to your younger brother or sister who is in elementary school, a fellow student, a senior psychology major, your professor, or the major researcher on your topic. Obviously, if you wrote for the major researcher, your younger brother or sister would not have a clue about what you are writing about. Similarly, if you wrote for your younger brother or sister, the major researcher would be insulted. It is important that you do not write in such a way that the reader is either insulted or confused. Unless your instructor tells you otherwise, assume that your audience is another student who is familiar with the basic concepts and ideas in psychology that you are covering. In other words, a fellow student in the course should be able read your paper, understand what you are arguing, and accurately report back to you what you have written. The Opening Paragraph. The opening paragraph introduces the reader to the problem or issue to be addressed in the paper, it limits what the paper will cover, and it provides a central thesis for the paper. Edit out those vague, general throw away sentences often found in an opening paragraph. The following are examples of those sentences: The opening paragraph should make the reader want to read the paper which follows. It should grab someone's attention and identify quickly and clearly what the paper is about. If you are addressing a problem, note why the problem is important. If you are analyzing some variables, let the reader know what variables will be considered in the paper. Most importantly, the opening paragraph should lead to and end with a clear, concise thesis statement. The Thesis Statement. The thesis statement tells the reader what your paper is all about. It takes a position. It tells the reader what you plan to show in the paper. Writing a paper can be compared to taking a trip. Knowing where you want to end up is like having a clear thesis statement. You can organize your arguments to lead the reader to your conclusion. Not having a clear thesis statement is like not knowing where you want to end up. Almost any piece of information is relevant and your paper is confused. The following are some examples of vague thesis statements: Compare the thesis statements above with the those below. Can you see why the statements below are clearer and more focused? When you have a clear, focussed thesis, you know what you have to show in the paper. In the first example, you would have to show how gender differences in power lead to discrimination. In the second, you would have to show why altering the client's thinking is more important than just changing inappropriate behavior. In the third, you would have to show how the intergroup contact hypothesis can be used to reduce prejudice against the handicapped. Remember that an interesting opening paragraph and a clear thesis statement is important regardless of the type of paper you are writing. The body of the paper may differ, however, as a function of paper type. In a report, the body of the paper conveys the basic ideas contained in the book or article you read. In a review, the body of the paper presents the reasons, and supporting evidence, for why you agree or disagree with the article or book. In a literature review, the body of the paper presents the arguments or points you are trying to make, interpreting the research/theory to provide support for those arguments. In a research proposal, the body of the paper interprets the research/theory to show why the hypothesis is legitimate.
Outlining Outlining your paper before you begin is always a good idea. It helps you organize your ideas and more importantly prevents you from leaving something out. Some outline and other simply write and then edit. If you can teach yourself to use outlines effectively, do so. It will save you time in the long run. If you cannot outline, allow yourself extra time for editing. Nevertheless, always realize that editing will be required.
Writing the First Draft Some worry so much about every word that they become paralyzed and unable to write. Allow yourself the luxury of putting words down on paper the first time without worrying about whether they are absolutely correct. Our advice to procrastinators and worriers is to write first, edit second, and save the worrying for the outcome of the next national election. You can always edit yesterday's awkward writing, but only if you wrote the first draft yesterday.
Editing and Rewriting With a first
draft in the computer, the hard part is over. Now you can concentrate on
refining what you said without the worry of what to say. You now want to
edit for content, style, and organization. Have you said everything you
wanted to say? Are all the sections consistent with the outline? Does some
material need to be moved to another section, or should you revise the
outline? Are you writing clearly? Have you used consistent style throughout
and adhered to the proper guidelines for
The number of drafts necessary for a really "good" piece of writing depends on an individual's ability and experience, as well as his or her criteria for good. While students rarely allow sufficient time for many drafts, professional writers often do four or more drafts and then turn their work over to a copy editor for polishing. Like any highly refined technique, good writing is the result of practice. When you have done one or more rewrites of your paper, consider these two suggestions before preparing a final copy for your professor. First, let someone else read your paper for style, flow, and clarity. Of course, your paper must remain only your work, but there is no reason why you can't make use of your friend's evaluation of your style.
Last Touches A final draft, ready to be submitted to your professor, should be carefully prepared with as few errors as possible. That means proofreading your paper very carefully. Give you ideas the credit they deserve by presenting a polished paper free of inaccurate spelling, typos, incorrect style, and so forth. Your ideas deserve the best showcase you can give them. It is also helpful to inquire how your paper should be packaged when submitted. Not all professors appreciate the plastic binders you buy in the bookstore. Some prefer stapled reports.
Style and Technical Considerations The paragraph. The basic unit of writing is the paragraph. Rarely can a sentence stand alone. When you introduce an idea, it should be developed. In some ways a paragraph is like a mini-paper in that it starts with a central concept, develops that concept, and summarizes it. A good paragraph has two characteristics. First, it is unified: each sentence within a paragraph contributes to the same basic concept. You will usually state the concept in a topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. Second, the sentences in a paragraph should flow naturally. That is, the ideas presented in each sentence should relate to those contained in the sentences before and after. Transitional devices. One key to making your paper flow is to use transitional words or devices. Transitional words are helpful in tying one sentence to another and connecting different ideas within the same paragraph or paper. Common kinds of transitional devices include pronouns (e.g., "Lewin was a father of social psychology. He also ..."), repeating words or phrases (e.g., "Werner proposed the orthogenic theory of development. Many current developmental theorists have a foundation in Werner's work."), and using synonyms or closely related works (e.g., "Cats are a favorite laboratory animal for the study of sleep. As we all know, felines like to sleep."). Transitional
words can be used in many other ways. You probably already use transitional
devices to make comparisons, provide examples, or enumerate. Table 1 provides
some examples of transitional phrases and their functions.
Table 1. Examples of Transitional Phrases and Their Functions.The first sentence of each paragraph may contain a transitional expression relating it to the preceding paragraph. If the new paragraph continues the theme of the preceding paragraph, use a transition like "in addition," or "furthermore." If you intend to introduce a new concept or wish to contrast, use "on the other hand" or "in contrast." Use "in conclusion" or "to summarize" if you are summarizing or reaching a conclusion. Supporting statements. A key to writing clearly is being specific. Avoid using broad generalizations unless you follow them with concrete examples. Document or validate your point with data. If you state, "The intelligence scores of mothers and their children are strongly related.", support this statement with research findings or theory. For example, "In a study of 2,500 17 year-olds, Hollister (1983) found the strongest predictor of IQ was the mother's IQ." The proper tense. Choosing the correct tense in which to write your psychology paper can be confusing. The basic rule is to avoid the future tense. Most of your paper should be written in the past tense. The reason is that most of what you are describing has already been done. That is, the literature you cite has already been written, and the studies have already been conducted. As a general rule, discussions of prior research, descriptions of procedure, or statements of results, are in the past tense. For example: Literature review: Mitchell's study found (not finds) ... Procedure: The subjects were (not are) ... Results: Mean scores were (not are) ... While most of your paper will be written in the past tense, certain statements may be in the present tense. A rule of thumb is to use the present tense in a scientific paper for statements which have continuing or general applicability. Therefore, definitions or statements from a well defined theory should be stated in the present tense. For example: Definition: Drever defines ...; In this experiment pain is ... Theory: The orthogenetic theory states that ...; Freud says ... Hypothesis: Memory was not expected to correlate with motivation. Results: Mitchell demonstrated (past tense when referring to a particular study) that person nodes are used (present tense when referring to general findings) ... References to tables or figures: Table 1 shows ... Correct person and voice. In addition to tense, verbs can show voice and person. The active voice implies action by the subject ("The butler committed the crime."), while the passive voice indicates something is happening to the actor ("The crime was committed by the butler."). Traditionally, scientific papers have been written in the third person and the passive voice, i.e., "The researcher administered the survey." The purpose of this writing style is to de-emphasize the personal nature of the report. The procedures and data are to stand on their own. However, this often results in clumsy prose that is difficult or boring to read. In term papers it is usually better to use the active voice. "Jones found ... " rather than "It was found by Jones ..." The use of the first person, "I," should be reserved for those situations where the writer is clearly expressing his or her own views. Avoid the use of "we." Agreement of subject and verb. The most common grammatical errors concern subject verb agreement. Singular and plural forms of a verb are sometimes incorrectly matched with a subject noun or pronoun. Every sentence must have both a subject and a verb. The subject is that part of the sentence that performs. For example, "Mark is an industrial psychologist." In the case of a passive sentence, the subject receives the action of the verbs (e.g., "The shot was given to Smedley."). The verb expresses action or a state of being. For example, "Mabel ran in the Boston Marathon." or "The rats were psychotic."
Correct singular and plural forms. Many psychology students get confused
about the singular and plural forms of certain scientific terms. The following
list should be helpful.
Table 2. Singular and Plural Forms for a Number of WordsAvoiding sexist language. You may have learned to write using the generic words he, him, his, man, and mankind to refer to people in general. In addition, you may have habits that either subtly or blatantly support sex role stereotypes. Until recently such sexist usage was not questioned. However, we encourage you to adopt a nonsexist alternative. Since 1977, the American Psychological Association has encouraged writing styles that support egalitarian attitudes and assumptions about people and sex roles. Below are some tips on writing in an appropriate, nonsexist manner. 1. Don't use the words "girls" or "boys" unless you are speaking specifically about children; use "women" and "men" instead.Grammar and style. Avoid the use of long involved sentences, inverted phrases, etc., which can lead to confusion. Simple, direct declarative sentences are usually the best. The style of psychology papers may seem dry but it is intended to be clear and consistent. Avoid emotionally loaded words (e.g., drastically significant, desperately needed). An evaluation need not have moral implications; an author may be incorrect without the results being unwarranted, bad, etc. Titles and headings. Except for very short papers (two or three pages) your paper should have a title page. Center the title about midway down the title page. Under the title, center your name. In the lower right hand corner of the page, include the number and name of the course for which the paper is being prepared, the date it is submitted, and your pledge. Remember to type of word "pledge" and sign your name. The next page begins the body of your paper. Center your title in uppercase and lowercase letters about two inches below the top of the page (do not underline). In the upper right hand corner of this and the following pages should be a page number. Make this page one. Page numbering and headers, as they are called, can be done automatically with PC-Write. Effective use of headings helps the writer to organize a paper effectively and the reader to better understand a paper's content. Therefore, we encourage you to make appropriate use of headings as a means of organizing your paper. You can see how headings and titles are used in the paper in Appendix A. Three levels
of headings are sufficient for most student papers. They are illustrated
below:
Usually the material which follows the title on the second page is introductory. The purpose of such material is presumed by a reader and no heading such as "Introduction" is used. The first time you use a heading will be for a section later in the body of the paper. Items in a series. Sometimes it is very helpful to organize material using a list. When this appears within a paragraph or sentence, items should be noted alphabetically: (a) first item, (b) second item, and so on. Another type of list is one made up of a series of conclusions or steps in some procedure which need to be entered on separate lines for emphasis. Each item is treated as a separate paragraph. These should be indented and listed as follows: 1. Item number one. The first line of each item should be indented. Additional material continues on subsequent lines. 2. Item number two. 3. Item number three and so forth. Numbers in the text. The use of numbers in psychology is somewhat different from other styles of writing. In psychology it is important to ensure precision and clarity with the statistics often included in a paper. A rule of thumb for using numbers in your paper is that all numbers 10 and above should be expressed in Arabic figures, and all numbers below 10 should be expressed in words. There are, however, some important exceptions. For example, a sentence should never begin with an Arabic number. The table which follows summarizes the use of numbers in the text of a paper. Abbreviations. Abbreviations are used in a paper when they will help make a reader's task easier, but it is possible to overuse abbreviations. When in doubt, avoid an abbreviation. Certain terms and titles have meaning to almost everyone familiar with the field. For example, MMPI can be used as a clear substitute for Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, and almost any reader would comprehend the use of IQ instead of Intelligence Quotient. These abbreviations make the task of reading simpler.
References One of the most important tasks in the preparation of papers is the proper citation of references. This may seem a little confusing since most students are used to thinking of bibliographies. There are some important differences between the two. A reference section includes only those literature items that are actually cited in the paper. A bibliography will include items that served as background material but which were not explicitly cited (also, see the Citation Guidelines page for more information on referencing). References in the text. When you discuss almost anything that is not original with you, such as a book, journal article, or even a lecture, it must have a reference. Psychology papers use the name/date method of noting such citations, not footnotes. For every statement that you have adapted from another source, there should be both a name or names and a publication date included in the body of the paper. There are a three basic ways in which a reference can be cited. First, the sentence containing the material can begin with the author and date: Jones (1983) was one of the first researchers to study carefully the annual spring migration of college students to southern beaches.Second, the above style could be changed to the following: In 1983 Jones first began to study carefully the annual spring ...Third, the author's name and the date of publication may be placed in parentheses at the conclusion of the statement: One recent study examined the annual spring migration of college students to southern beaches (Jones, 1983).The reference may be linked with a single sentence or even a paragraph, but the material to which you are referring should be clear from the way you have entered the citation. If you refer to one article or book several times in the same paragraph, or on the same page, you need only use the date once, unless the reader would be confused by such things as other references with the same author which have different dates. The best rule to follow in this case is common sense. Always ask yourself, will the reader easily understand the source of the material referenced? Multiple authors. There are instances when you use references with several authors, or several references which address the same material. Some of the ways in which this can be handled are illustrated below: Several early studies (Good & John, 1955; James & Stevens, 1962) collected data on student sleeping habits.Note that the ampersand (&) is used between authors' names when they are enclosed in parentheses, and a semicolon separates different references. Also note that the references are listed alphabetically and in order of publication. Sometimes you will use a reference in your paper with more than two authors. The first time you cite such a reference in your paper, list all of the authors: Perhaps the most comprehensive study of "walkman" listening behavior was done by Johnson, Jones, and James (1982).If you cite the same study again, you may omit the names of all but the first author and substitute "et al." for the other authors: One of the most interesting conclusions of Johnson et al. (1962) ...Secondary sources. You may find it necessary to cite a reference from a secondary source. For example, you might find a pertinent article discussed in your textbook but discover that the study is unavailable in the library. This is most likely to occur with older articles or articles from foreign journals. While you should be careful this doesn't occur too often in a paper, it is usually acceptable to use such a reference in the text. However, it should be followed by the notation in parentheses such as: Pavlov (cited in Hilgard & Bower, 1966) was the first to study ...Since you have read about Pavlov in Hilgard and Bower, only the secondary source is listed in the reference section at the end of the paper. Quotations. You may wish to include quotations to emphasize important points in your paper. Brief quotations can be marked with quotation marks and included as a part of the text. Quotations longer than one sentence or 40 words should be set in an indented block without quotation marks, as illustrated below. Whenever you use a quotation, it should be referenced in the same way as other material, with the important addition of the page number(s) on which the original appeared. An important issue is raised by Walker (1978) who indicates "the unusual habit of compulsive and repetitive running back and forth in confined space while attempting to force a large ball through a metal hoop high above the ground" (p. 363) requires more careful study by behavioral scientists. One author dismissed the conjecture about basketball as "a case of behavioral scientists failing to see 'the forest through the trees'" (Doe, 1982, p. 343).Web-Based References. APA has recently updated the format for citing material taken from the World Wide Web. A summary of the format rules for web material can be found at: http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html Reference Lists. At the conclusion of your paper should be a list of all the references cited in the text. Only references which have actually been used in preparation of the paper should be included here. You must be sure that there is consistency between the citation in the text and the reference list. The style we are describing is consistent with the American Psychological Association style. The two major types of references are those taken from journals (technical, professional magazines) and those from books. The examples below should cover most of the more common types of references. If you have questions about how to present an unusual source of material, check with your professor. And note that the first line of a reference is flush with the left margin but subsequent lines are indented. Murray, R.,
& Jones, J. (1982). Mating behavior of squirrels on the capitol mall.
Journal of Squirrel
Jackson, J.
K., Jackson, K. J., & Jackson, J. J. (1952). The effects of birth
order on career selection (2nd
Bindrim, P. (1980, July). Group therapy: Protecting privacy. PsychologyToday, pp. 24, 27-28. Zuzman, J.
(1975). Recognition and management of psychiatric emergencies. In H. L.
P. Resnik & H. L.
Kopolow, L.
E., Brands, A. B., Burton, J. L., & Ochberg, F. (1975).Litigation
and mental health services
NSF commission looks at science education. (1983, May). APA Monitor, p.34. The first reference is a standard journal article. Note carefully the punctuation and capitalization. The 2 is the volume number of the journal. The next reference is a book. Note that only the first letter of the first word is capitalized. The book was published in Green Bay, WI by Green Bay Press. Professional journals have continuous page numbering. That is, page numbering continues from one issue to the next for an entire year. When this system is used, it is not necessary to include the month of publication as part of the date. However, most popular magazines begin each issue with page 1. In this situation, it is necessary to include the month as part of the date. See example three above. There are a number of special situations that require special reference formats. The fourth example above is a situation where several authors have contributed chapters to a book. Zuzman is the author of a chapter in a book edited by Resnik and Ruben. The final two examples are a government publication and a news article without an author. The final item would be noted as NSF (1983) in the body of the paper. References are listed alphabetically by author, or in order of publication if there are several items by the same author. Where there is more than one author, all single author references by an author come first. Then the listing proceeds alphabetically by second author, then third author, etc. References are typed in the following way. The first line of each reference begins at the left-hand margin of the paper. The following lines are indented five spaces, making it easy for the reader to quickly locate a reference by the author's name.
Word Processing Given the availability of word processing facilities at Allegheny, we assume that students will produce papers using one of the available software packages. Not only does the use of the word processor make revisions much easier but the supplementary computer software that can be used with a word processor can be of great value to a student. For example, there are spelling checkers that will determine if you have made any typographical errors in your paper. Grammar checkers can help you with awkward sentence structure and subject/verb agreement. See the staff at the Educational Computing Center in the library for assistance in using these programs.
Grading Standards Although professors use varying grading standards, most can tell you what an "A" paper should be like. The following grading standards are meant to be general guidelines only. An "A" paper has a clear point that the average reader could express in one sentence if asked to do so. This point is substantiated, developed, or discussed with evidence or examples or detail that is concrete, vivid, and logically arranged. The sentences in the "A" paper invite re-reading because they are interesting. The "A" paper is excellent for this level of instruction. A "B" paper also has a clear point with pertinent concrete detail used to support or explain that point. It too shows above-average usage and control of punctuation, but sentence patterns and length may not indicate the writing competence of the "A" paper. Diction may be not quite as precise. It too may invite re-reading. A "C" paper makes a fairly clear point but may include occasional irrelevant information or misplaced ideas. It won't have the clear organization of the "A" or "B" papers. Nor will sentences be as varied. Minor usage errors (such as pronoun references and noun agreement) and some punctuation errors may occur, and words may be used inaccurately on occasion. The "C" paper is average work for this level of instruction. The "D" and "F" papers are difficult to process because of the "static" at the sentence level and foggy meaning due to uncontrolled diction and sentence structure. Words may be used inaccurately so frequently as to confuse readers. Ideas are difficult to get at because of uncontrolled sentences. Such papers are exhausting to the reader and invite only masochists to re-read them.
Plagiarism and the Honor Code Using an idea,
phrase, sentence, paragraph, etc., from someone else, whether a published
writer or friend, (unless given credit in the text via a reference), is
plagiarizing. Both direct quotes and paraphrased material must be credited
by referencing. Paraphrasing means thinking through a point made by another
person and restating it in your own words. It does not mean taking a phrase
or sentence from another person and substituting a synonym here and there.
For more details see the document on proper citations.
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