Part Two:  Writing

To achieve clarity, good writing must be precise in it use of words, free of ambiguity, orderly in its presentation of ideas, economical in expression, smooth in flow, and considerate of the reader.

Precision

Strive to choose words which convey the intended meaning. Qualifiers are often a source of imprecision. Expressions such as "quite a large part," "practically all," "very few," and the like are interpreted differently by different readers or in different contexts. They weaken statements, especially those dealing with empirical observations.

Do not use words incorrectly (when you mean think do not write feel), and avoid coined terms (use concept not conceptuum).

   Avoiding ambiguity.The referent for each term should be so apparent that the reader will not have to search over prior material. Ambiguity is avoided by indicating the referent every time you use this, that, these, and those (e.g., this test and that trial). Also, make certain that the first sentence of a paragraph is comprehensible by itself; do not depend on a vague reference to earlier statements.

   Economy of expression. Strive for clear, economical expression. Avoid overly sophisticated terms, as well as overly complex sentences.

   Smoothness of expression. Do not introduce a topic abruptly. If the reader is likely to ask "How does this fit in?", more transition is necessary. Similarly, do not abandon an argument suddenly. If a reader feels "left hanging," the discussion needs a concluding statement.

Verbs must agree with their subjects, and pronouns with the nouns to which they refer. This simple rule is usually not troublesome except with plural words of Latin or Greek origin that end in a. For example, data, criteria, and phenomena are plural.

Consideration of the reader

In scientific writing, devices that attract attention to words, sounds or other embellishments, instead of ideas, are inappropriate. Heavy alliteration, accidental rhyming, poetic expression, and clichés are suspect. They are unsuitable in scientific writing because they lead the reader, who is looking for information, away from the theme of the paper. Metaphors are sometimes helpful, but use them sparingly. Avoid mixed metaphors. Literal and figurative usage mix badly; for example, "During the interview, the client sat with her head in her hands and her eyes on the floor."

Absolute insistence on the third person and the passive voice ("it is thought" or "it is suggested") has been a strong tradition in scientific writing. It is now thought that this results in a deadly, pompous style known as "scientificese," and is no longer seen as essential to the preservation of objectivity. However, despite a slight relaxation of these rules, the use of the passive voice and the third person is still the norm in most scientific writing. See the section below for additional information on person and voice.

Avoiding Sexism

Sexism can spring from subtle errors in research design, inaccurate interpretation, or imprecise word choices. An investigator may
unintentionally introduce bias into the research design, for example, by using stimulus materials and measures that suggest to one sex or the other what responses are "appropriate." Or, in interpretation, an investigator may make unwarranted generalizations about both men and women from data about one sex. Imprecise word choices, which occur frequently in journal writing, may be interpreted as biased, discriminatory, or demeaning even if they are not intended to be.

   Problems of designation. When you refer to a person or persons, choose words that are accurate, clear, and free from bias. For example, the use of "man" as a generic noun can be ambiguous and may convey an implicit message that women are of secondary importance. You can choose nouns, pronouns, and adjectives to eliminate, or at least to minimize, the possibility of ambiguity in sex role identity. Problems of designation are divided into two subcategories: ambiguity of referent, when it is unclear whether the author means one sex or both, and stereotyping, when the author conveys unsupported or biased connotations about sex roles and identity.

   Problems of evaluation. Scientific writing, as an extension of science, should be free of implied or irrelevant evaluation of the sexes. Difficulties may derive from the use of clichés, such as "man and wife," which is non-parallel and implies differences in status and lifestyle (husband and wife" are parallel, or "man and woman"). Problems of evaluation, like problems of designation, are divided into ambiguity of referent and stereotyping.

   Avoiding sexist language. The task of changing language may seem awkward at first. Nevertheless, careful attention to meaning and practice in rephrasing will overcome any initial difficulty. The result of such effort is accurate, unbiased communication. For example, instead of "Much has been written about the effect that a child's position among his siblings has on his intellectual development", you might say, "Much has been written about the relationship between sibling position and intellectual development in children."

Like language that may be interpreted as sexist, language that may be construed as ethnically biased can be classified into problems of designation and problems of evaluation.

    Problems of designation. Styles and preferences for nouns referring to ethnic groups change over time. In some cases, even members of a group disagree about the preferred name at a specific time. Ascertain the most acceptable current terms and use them.

   Problems of evaluation. The majority of instances of implied irrelevant evaluation seem to occur when the writer uses one group (usually the writer's own group) as the standard against which others are assessed. Unfortunately, the basis for negative comparisons is usually established during the planning of the research, for example, by the choice of empirical measures.

At the writing stage, avoid language that suggests evaluation. An example of implied evaluation is found in the phrase "culturally deprived" when it is used to describe a single group rather than to compare two or more groups. Using the term to describe one group of participants implies that one culture is a universally accepted standard against which others are judged. As a test of implied evaluation, substitute another group (e.g., your own) for the group being discussed. If you are offended by the revised statement, there is probably bias in the original statement.

Writing in Psychology

The goal of scientific writing is effective communication, communication of  abstract propositions, logical arguments, empirical observations, experimental  results, and their interrelations and interactions.  Clear organization, as  well as lucid and precise writing, are very important conditions for such  communication.  This guide is designed to help you produce clear and well written papers, no matter what the topic or format. 

• Types of Papers in Psychology
• Writing the Paper
• Outlining
• The First Draft
• Editing and Rewriting
• The Last Touches
• Style and Technical Considerations
• References
• Word Processing
• Grading Standards
• Plagiarism and the Honor Code

Types of Papers in Psychology

Writing papers in psychology is much like writing papers in any other discipline. Nevertheless, in psychology, there are a number of different types of papers which may be required. As always, it is best to consult with your instructor, or carefully read the syllabus, to know what is expected of you in any particular course. The following provides a brief description of the types of papers which may be assigned.

     Report. In a report, a student is expected to accurately and concisely convey the arguments contained in the book or article read. There is no interpretation in most reports. Instead, the goal is to summarize what the author has said.

    Review. In a review, one analyzes a work written by someone else. Generally, the thesis of the paper is either agreement or disagreement with the position taken by the author. The opening paragraph provides a brief synopsis of the book or article ending with a thesis statement which states your evaluation. The body of the paper then presents the arguments and associated evidence justifying your viewpoint.

    Critical Analysis. A critical analysis is known by a number of different names. It is sometimes called a literature review, a policy paper, or even simply a term paper. In a critical analysis, the point of the paper is to integrate a number of works by different people relevant to a specific topic or issue. In many ways, it combines and extends the type of writing contained in reports and reviews. Like a report you must accurately present the positions of others and like a critical analysis your evaluation of that body of research and/or theory is critical. A critical analysis usually begins with an opening paragraph which presents the problem or topic in general terms. The opening should lead the reader to a clear thesis statement which is often the final sentence in the opening paragraph. The thesis statement should indicate what you intend to show in the paper. Thus, the thesis should take a position. The body of the paper then presents the arguments you will use to justify your thesis. What is important is that you use research/theory to justify your position. You must interpret the research/theory rather than simply report it. Interpretation means that you must explain how a particular finding or method is relevant to your thesis statement. Everything contained in a critical analysis should help you justify your thesis.

    Research Proposal. Some courses require research proposals. Since the format for the proposal may depend on the course for which it is written, it is important to ask the instructor for any special instructions. In the absence of special instructions/requirements, the following should apply.

A research proposal has two basic sections. The introduction has as its basic goal the presentation and justification of a testable hypothesis. The opening paragraph of a research proposal generally identifies a problem and indicates the independent variables of the proposed study. The final paragraph of a research proposal usually provides a brief narrative description of the proposed research and ends with a statement of the hypotheses to be tested. Given that you now have a general sense of where to begin (the opening) and where you want to end (the hypotheses), the trick is figure out how to get there from here. The purpose of the body of the paper is to justify the hypotheses through a careful analysis of the available research and theory. Thus, the body of the paper must review the research relevant to the independent variables in your proposal. Again, interpretation of the research rather than simply reporting is the goal. You must state what the research means for the hypotheses you are trying to develop. A research proposal is successful if a reader can easily understand how your interpretation of the research/theory led you to the specific hypotheses presented.

The second section, titled methods, describes the way you are planning to test the hypotheses. It is frequently sub-divided into sections titled, subjects, design, and procedure. Individual instructors may ask for additional sections. Check to see that you are following the instructor's recommendations.

    Lab Report. A lab report usually contains the same sections as a research proposal with the addition of a results section which contains the data and a discussion which addresses the implications of the data for the hypotheses which prompted the study. Instructors generally have a format for lab reports. Check with the instructor for the format to use in that course.

    Choosing a topic. If your professor has given you a list of suggested topics, of course, take those suggestions seriously. Often, however, you are asked to choose a topic on your own. One way to do this is to step back from your day-to-day immersion in the course and take a broad view of the course content, the breadth of the topics covered, their meaning to you, and their application to your experience, or to "real world" situations that interest you. Examining your textbook from this perspective, skimming its table of contents, index, and chapter subheadings (especially those chapters you haven't read yet), can be very helpful, and should help you decide on a topic that will sustain your interest and enthusiasm. It is also helpful at this stage to look for a topic that, perhaps from class lectures or your text, you know generates controversy or interesting questions, or leaves you room to participate in problem solving.

Once you have some preliminary ideas, read what is readily available on the topic in your text or the library. Talk to other students and with your professor. Remember that the professor can be a major resource and should be approached early in the process to help you clarify your choice. However, do not expect your professor to welcome a visit which begins with, "I can't think of anything to write a paper on." Professors much prefer directing your thinking to doing it for you!

It is important to select a topic which is appropriate in terms of its level of difficulty. A topic which is too broad will lead to a superficial paper without an adequate focus. A topic which is too narrow will make it difficult for you to find enough relevant material, or what you discover may be too complex for you. What is appropriate will also depend upon the level of your course. Some examples will illustrate this problem.

        Too Broad: Emotional disturbances schizophrenia

        Too narrow: Habit disorder in children speech problems in childhood schizophrenia

        Better: Behavioral models of causal factors in emotional disturbances schizophrenia

One test of the appropriateness of your topic will be the amount of relevant material you can find in the library. If you find too little, the topic may be too narrow; if you feel overwhelmed by the amount available, it may be too broad.

    Searching the literature. Establish early the level of sophistication you expect to achieve with the topic you have chosen. If you are really interested in, or expect to achieve, a state of the art knowledge in the area, you will need to start early and search the literature systematically. Frequently, professors set criteria for the minimum number of books, journals, or magazines cited. Bear in mind that asking questions such as: "How many references do I need?", or "How long should my paper be?", is comparable to asking, "How long is a piece of string?" Teachers give answers only to insure adequate work and to avoid having many unnecessarily long papers. The amount of information available and its relevance to the goals of your paper will more appropriately determine the length of your reference list.

Refer to the section of this manual that deals with the library to get some hints on how to proceed. Start with a preliminary look at the subject catalog for book holdings and check recent issues of the indexes and abstracts most likely to cover your topic to see if there is at least some literature available. You may find that the library's findings must be supplemented by interlibrary loans. This should cause no major difficulty if you allow sufficient time for materials to be located and sent.

    Reading and organizing. As you read the literature concerning your topic, proceed by systematically taking notes; be sure to record what you feel is important. It is easy to get absorbed in the reading and to move on to other materials without pausing to take notes. However, every good writer needs to accumulate notes carefully before attempting to write a paper. It is very helpful to write notes on index cards so they may be reordered at a later date. Substantive notes summarizing a study or article can be written in the form they might be used in your paper. For instance, after reading a 10 page research report in a journal, your note could summarize the key points in a paragraph that begins:

Throckmorton and Doe (1979) tested the effect of humor on reducing pre-exam anxiety by showing videotapes of early Candid Camera TV shows during breakfast in a large dining hall on the campus of a small midwestern liberal arts college. The subjects, 215 juniors and seniors, reported ....

After you have decided on a topic, collected the relevant research, and taken notes, you have to think about writing the paper. The following are some points to consider as you begin to write.

    The Audience. Before you begin to write, ask yourself, "For whom am I writing this paper?" Your answer to this question will determine the amount of detail included in the paper and the amount of sophistication of the writing. For example, think about how you would present any topic to your younger brother or sister who is in elementary school, a fellow student, a senior psychology major, your professor, or the major researcher on your topic. Obviously, if you wrote for the major researcher, your younger brother or sister would not have a clue about what you are writing about. Similarly, if you wrote for your younger brother or sister, the major researcher would be insulted. It is important that you do not write in such a way that the reader is either insulted or confused. Unless your instructor tells you otherwise, assume that your audience is another student who is familiar with the basic concepts and ideas in psychology that you are covering. In other words, a fellow student in the course should be able read your paper, understand what you are arguing, and accurately report back to you what you have written.

    The Opening Paragraph. The opening paragraph introduces the reader to the problem or issue to be addressed in the paper, it limits what the paper will cover, and it provides a central thesis for the paper. Edit out those vague, general throw away sentences often found in an opening paragraph. The following are examples of those sentences:

Since humans are social beings, we are all affected by people around us.

B. F. Skinner, a famous psychologist who teaches at Harvard and invented the Skinner box which is used to study operant conditioning, is a controversial figure in psychology.

    The Thesis Statement. The thesis statement tells the reader what your paper is all about. It takes a position. It tells the reader what you plan to show in the paper. Writing a paper can be compared to taking a trip. Knowing where you want to end up is like having a clear thesis statement. You can organize your arguments to lead the reader to your conclusion. Not having a clear thesis statement is like not knowing where you want to end up. Almost any piece of information is relevant and your paper is confused. The following are some examples of vague thesis statements:

Men and women differ in the influence strategies they use.

This paper explores the differences between behavioral and cognitive therapies.

The intergroup contact hypothesis can be used to reduce prejudice other than racial prejudice.

Discrimination against women will continue as long as women use indirect power while men exercise direct power.

Cognitive therapies are superior to behavioral therapies because they consider both behavior and the client's thought processes.

Use of the intergroup contact hypothesis can reduce prejudice against handicapped people

Remember that an interesting opening paragraph and a clear thesis statement is important regardless of the type of paper you are writing. The body of the paper may differ, however, as a function of paper type. In a report, the body of the paper conveys the basic ideas contained in the book or article you read. In a review, the body of the paper presents the reasons, and supporting evidence, for why you agree or disagree with the article or book. In a literature review, the body of the paper presents the arguments or points you are trying to make, interpreting the research/theory to provide support for those arguments. In a research proposal, the body of the paper interprets the research/theory to show why the hypothesis is legitimate.

Outlining your paper before you begin is always a good idea. It helps you organize your ideas and more importantly prevents you from leaving something out. Some outline and other simply write and then edit. If you can teach yourself to use outlines effectively, do so. It will save you time in the long run. If you cannot outline, allow yourself extra time for editing. Nevertheless, always realize that editing will be required.

Some worry so much about every word that they become paralyzed and unable to write. Allow yourself the luxury of putting words down on paper the first time without worrying about whether they are absolutely correct. Our advice to procrastinators and worriers is to write first, edit second, and save the worrying for the outcome of the next national election. You can always edit yesterday's awkward writing, but only if you wrote the first draft yesterday.

With a first draft in the computer, the hard part is over. Now you can concentrate on refining what you said without the worry of what to say. You now want to edit for content, style, and organization. Have you said everything you wanted to say? Are all the sections consistent with the outline? Does some material need to be moved to another section, or should you revise the outline? Are you writing clearly? Have you used consistent style throughout and adhered to the proper guidelines for
quotations, headings, referencing others' work, and so forth?

The number of drafts necessary for a really "good" piece of writing depends on an individual's ability and experience, as well as his or her criteria for good. While students rarely allow sufficient time for many drafts,

professional writers often do four or more drafts and then turn their work over to a copy editor for polishing. Like any highly refined technique, good writing is the result of practice.

When you have done one or more rewrites of your paper, consider these two suggestions before preparing a final copy for your professor. First, let someone else read your paper for style, flow, and clarity. Of course, your paper must remain only your work, but there is no reason why you can't make use of your friend's evaluation of your style.

A final draft, ready to be submitted to your professor, should be carefully prepared with as few errors as possible. That means proofreading your paper very carefully. Give you ideas the credit they deserve by presenting a polished paper free of inaccurate spelling, typos, incorrect style, and so forth. Your ideas deserve the best showcase you can give them. It is also helpful to inquire how your paper should be packaged when submitted. Not all professors appreciate the plastic binders you buy in the bookstore. Some prefer stapled reports.

    The paragraph. The basic unit of writing is the paragraph. Rarely can a sentence stand alone. When you introduce an idea, it should be developed. In some ways a paragraph is like a mini-paper in that it starts with a central concept, develops that concept, and summarizes it. A good paragraph has two characteristics. First, it is unified: each sentence within a paragraph contributes to the same basic concept. You will usually state the concept in a topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. Second, the sentences in a paragraph should flow naturally. That is, the ideas presented in each sentence should relate to those contained in the sentences before and after.

    Transitional devices. One key to making your paper flow is to use transitional words or devices. Transitional words are helpful in tying one sentence to another and connecting different ideas within the same paragraph or paper. Common kinds of transitional devices include pronouns (e.g., "Lewin was a father of social psychology. He also ..."), repeating words or phrases (e.g., "Werner proposed the orthogenic theory of development. Many current developmental theorists have a foundation in Werner's work."), and using synonyms or closely related works (e.g., "Cats are a favorite laboratory animal for the study of sleep. As we all know, felines like to sleep.").

Transitional words can be used in many other ways. You probably already use transitional devices to make comparisons, provide examples, or enumerate. Table 1 provides some examples of transitional phrases and their functions.
 

Table 1. Examples of Transitional Phrases and Their Functions.

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Make comparisons: Similarly/however/in contrast/on the other hand but/likewise/yet/nevertheless

Augment your point: In addition/also/too/and/furthermore

Enumerate: First/second/next/finally/last

Give examples: For example/to illustrate

Reach conclusions: As a result/as a consequence/therefore/thus

Summarize: In summary/in short/to summarize

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    Supporting statements. A key to writing clearly is being specific. Avoid using broad generalizations unless you follow them with concrete examples. Document or validate your point with data. If you state, "The intelligence scores of mothers and their children are strongly related.", support this statement with research findings or theory. For example, "In a study of 2,500 17 year-olds, Hollister (1983) found the strongest predictor of IQ was the mother's IQ."

  The proper tense. Choosing the correct tense in which to write your psychology paper can be confusing. The basic rule is to avoid the future tense. Most of your paper should be written in the past tense. The reason is that most of what you are describing has already been done. That is, the literature you cite has already been written, and the studies have already been conducted. As a general rule, discussions of prior research, descriptions of procedure, or statements of results, are in the past tense. For example:

    Literature review: Mitchell's study found (not finds) ...

    Procedure: The subjects were (not are) ...

    Results: Mean scores were (not are) ...

While most of your paper will be written in the past tense, certain statements may be in the present tense. A rule of thumb is to use the present tense in a scientific paper for statements which have continuing or general applicability. Therefore, definitions or statements from a well defined theory should be stated in the present tense. For example:

    Definition: Drever defines ...; In this experiment pain is ...

    Theory: The orthogenetic theory states that ...; Freud says ...

    Hypothesis: Memory was not expected to correlate with motivation.

    Results: Mitchell demonstrated (past tense when referring to a particular study) that person nodes are used (present tense   when referring to general findings) ...

    References to tables or figures: Table 1 shows ...

    Correct person and voice. In addition to tense, verbs can show voice and person. The active voice implies action by the subject ("The butler committed the crime."), while the passive voice indicates something is happening to the actor ("The crime was committed by the butler."). Traditionally, scientific papers have been written in the third person and the passive voice, i.e., "The researcher administered the survey." The purpose of this writing style is to de-emphasize the personal nature of the report. The procedures and data are to stand on their own. However, this often results in clumsy prose that is difficult or boring to read. In term papers it is usually better to use the active voice. "Jones found ... " rather than "It was found by Jones ..." The use of the first person, "I," should be reserved for those situations where the writer is clearly expressing his or her own views. Avoid the use of "we."

    Agreement of subject and verb. The most common grammatical errors concern subject verb agreement. Singular and plural forms of a verb are sometimes incorrectly matched with a subject noun or pronoun. Every sentence must have both a subject and a verb. The subject is that part of the sentence that performs. For example, "Mark is an industrial psychologist." In the case of a passive sentence, the subject receives the action of the verbs (e.g., "The shot was given to Smedley."). The verb expresses action or a state of being. For example, "Mabel ran in the Boston Marathon." or "The rats were psychotic."

    Correct singular and plural forms. Many psychology students get confused about the singular and plural forms of certain scientific terms. The following list should be helpful.
 

Table 2. Singular and Plural Forms for a Number of Words

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                    Singular                                 Plural

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                    criterion                                  criteria

                    phenomenon                         phenomena

                    apparatus                               apparatus or apparatuses

                    stimulus                                 stimuli

                    analysis                                 analyses

                    datum                                     data

                    appendix                                appendixes or appendices

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1. Don't use the words "girls" or "boys" unless you are speaking specifically about children; use "women" and "men" instead.

2. Substitute "person" for "man" and "people" for "men" unless you are talking specifically about males.

3. Use the plural when you are referring to a class of people. For example, "Students prefer their classes ...," rather than "A student prefers his classes..." The use of plurals will help you avoid the generic male pronoun.

4. Don't designate gender unless it's relevant. For example, use "minister" rather than "woman minister."

5. Remember to use current job titles, instead of previous sexist ones. Examples of appropriate titles include: police officer, flight attendant, postal worker, secretary (not office girl).

    Titles and headings. Except for very short papers (two or three pages) your paper should have a title page. Center the title about midway down the title page. Under the title, center your name. In the lower right hand corner of the page, include the number and name of the course for which the paper is being prepared, the date it is submitted, and your pledge. Remember to type of word "pledge" and sign your name.

The next page begins the body of your paper. Center your title in uppercase and lowercase letters about two inches below the top of the page (do not underline). In the upper right hand corner of this and the following pages should be a page number. Make this page one. Page numbering and headers, as they are called, can be done automatically with PC-Write.

Effective use of headings helps the writer to organize a paper effectively and the reader to better understand a paper's content. Therefore, we encourage you to make appropriate use of headings as a means of organizing your paper. You can see how headings and titles are used in the paper in Appendix A.

Three levels of headings are sufficient for most student papers. They are illustrated below:
 

Usually the material which follows the title on the second page is introductory. The purpose of such material is presumed by a reader and no heading such as "Introduction" is used. The first time you use a heading will be for a section later in the body of the paper.

    Items in a series. Sometimes it is very helpful to organize material using a list. When this appears within a paragraph or sentence, items should be noted alphabetically: (a) first item, (b) second item, and so on.

Another type of list is one made up of a series of conclusions or steps in some procedure which need to be entered on separate lines for emphasis. Each item is treated as a separate paragraph. These should be indented and listed as follows:

    1. Item number one. The first line of each item should be indented. Additional material continues on subsequent lines.

    2. Item number two.

    3. Item number three and so forth.

    Numbers in the text. The use of numbers in psychology is somewhat different from other styles of writing. In psychology it is important to ensure precision and clarity with the statistics often included in a paper.

A rule of thumb for using numbers in your paper is that all numbers 10 and above should be expressed in Arabic figures, and all numbers below 10 should be expressed in words. There are, however, some important exceptions. For example, a sentence should never begin with an Arabic number. The table which follows summarizes the use of numbers in the text of a paper.

 
Table 3. Use of Numbers in Text.

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Express as Numbers                                                     Express as Words

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Numbers 10 and above                                                 Numbers less than 10

Ages and dates                                                             Common fractions (two thirds of the U.S. population)

Groups of numbers with some above
and some below 10

Percentages and percentiles                                       Numbers that begin a sentence

Ratios                                                                             Precise measures or quantities (Fifty-four percent of the group)

Scores                                                                            Usual expressions (Fourth of July)

Statistical functions                                                   Street numbers in addresses

Sums of money

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One of the most important tasks in the preparation of papers is the proper citation of references. This may seem a little confusing since most students are used to thinking of bibliographies. There are some important differences between the two. A reference section includes only those literature items that are actually cited in the paper. A bibliography will include items that served as background material but which were not explicitly cited (also, see the Citation Guidelines for more information on referencing). 

    References in the text. When you discuss almost anything that is not original with you, such as a book, journal article, or even a lecture, it must have a reference. Psychology papers use the name/date method of noting such citations, not footnotes.

For every statement that you have adapted from another source, there should be both a name or names and a publication date included in the body of the paper. There are a three basic ways in which a reference can be cited. First, the sentence containing the material can begin with the author and date:

Jones (1983) was one of the first researchers to study carefully the annual spring migration of college students to southern beaches.

In 1983 Jones first began to study carefully the annual spring ...

One recent study examined the annual spring migration of college students to southern beaches (Jones, 1983).

    Multiple authors. There are instances when you use references with several authors, or several references which address the same material. Some of the ways in which this can be handled are illustrated below:

Several early studies (Good & John, 1955; James & Stevens, 1962) collected data on student sleeping habits.

Sometimes you will use a reference in your paper with more than two authors. The first time you cite such a reference in your paper, list all of the authors:

Perhaps the most comprehensive study of "walkman" listening behavior was done by Johnson, Jones, and James (1982).

One of the most interesting conclusions of Johnson et al. (1962) ...

Pavlov (cited in Hilgard & Bower, 1966) was the first to study ...

    Quotations. You may wish to include quotations to emphasize important points in your paper. Brief quotations can be marked with quotation marks and included as a part of the text. Quotations longer than one sentence or 40 words should be set in an indented block without quotation marks, as illustrated below. Whenever you use a quotation, it should be referenced in the same way as other material, with the important addition of the page number(s) on which the original appeared.

One author dismissed the conjecture about basketball as "a case of behavioral scientists failing to see 'the forest through the trees'" (Doe, 1982, p. 343).

    Reference Lists. At the conclusion of your paper should be a list of all the references cited in the text. Only references which have actually been used in preparation of the paper should be included here. You must be sure that there is consistency between the citation in the text and the reference list.

The style we are describing is consistent with the American Psychological Association style. The two major types of references are those taken from journals (technical, professional magazines) and those from books. The examples below should cover most of the more common types of references. If you have questions about how to present an unusual source of material, check with your professor. And note that the first line of a reference is flush with the left margin but subsequent lines are indented.

Murray, R., & Jones, J. (1982). Mating behavior of squirrels on the capitol mall. Journal of Squirrel 
     Psychology, 2, 123-128.

Jackson, J. K., Jackson, K. J., & Jackson, J. J. (1952). The effects of birth order on career selection (2nd 
     ed.). Green Bay, WI: Green Bay Press.

Bindrim, P. (1980, July). Group therapy: Protecting privacy. PsychologyToday, pp. 24, 27-28.

Zuzman, J. (1975). Recognition and management of psychiatric emergencies. In H. L. P. Resnik & H. L.
     Ruben (Eds.), Emergency psychiatric care (pp. 35-59). Bowie, MD: Charles Press.

Kopolow, L. E., Brands, A. B., Burton, J. L., & Ochberg, F. (1975).Litigation and mental health services 
     (National Institute of Mental Health, DHEW Publication No. ADM 76-261). Washington, DC:
     U.S.Government Printing Office.

NSF commission looks at science education. (1983, May). APA Monitor, p.34.

The first reference is a standard journal article. Note carefully the punctuation and capitalization. The 2 is the volume number of the journal.

The next reference is a book. Note that only the first letter of the first word is capitalized. The book was published in Green Bay, WI by Green Bay Press.

Professional journals have continuous page numbering. That is, page numbering continues from one issue to the next for an entire year. When this system is used, it is not necessary to include the month of publication as part of the date. However, most popular magazines begin each issue with page 1. In this situation, it is necessary to include the month as part of the date. See example three above.

There are a number of special situations that require special reference formats. The fourth example above is a situation where several authors have contributed chapters to a book. Zuzman is the author of a chapter in a book edited by Resnik and Ruben.

The final two examples are a government publication and a news article without an author. The final item would be noted as NSF (1983) in the body of the paper.

References are listed alphabetically by author, or in order of publication if there are several items by the same author. Where there is more than one author, all single author references by an author come first. Then the listing proceeds alphabetically by second author, then third author, etc.

References are typed in the following way. The first line of each reference begins at the left-hand margin of the paper. The following lines are indented five spaces, making it easy for the reader to quickly locate a reference by the author's name.

Given the availability of word processing facilities at Allegheny, we assume that students will produce papers using one of the available software packages. Not only does the use of the word processor make revisions much easier but the supplementary computer software that can be used with a word processor can be of great value to a student. For example, there are spelling checkers that will determine if you have made any typographical errors in your paper. Grammar checkers can help you with awkward sentence structure and subject/verb agreement. See the staff at the Educational Computing Center in the library for assistance in using these programs.

Although professors use varying grading standards, most can tell you what an "A" paper should be like. The following grading standards are meant to be general guidelines only.

An "A" paper has a clear point that the average reader could express in one sentence if asked to do so. This point is substantiated, developed, or discussed with evidence or examples or detail that is concrete, vivid, and logically arranged. The sentences in the "A" paper invite re-reading because they are interesting. The "A" paper is excellent for this level of instruction.

A "B" paper also has a clear point with pertinent concrete detail used to support or explain that point. It too shows above-average usage and control of punctuation, but sentence patterns and length may not indicate the writing competence of the "A" paper. Diction may be not quite as precise. It too may invite re-reading.

A "C" paper makes a fairly clear point but may include occasional irrelevant information or misplaced ideas. It won't have the clear organization of the "A" or "B" papers. Nor will sentences be as varied. Minor usage errors (such as pronoun references and noun agreement) and some punctuation errors may occur, and words may be used inaccurately on occasion. The "C" paper is average work for this level of instruction.

The "D" and "F" papers are difficult to process because of the "static" at the sentence level and foggy meaning due to uncontrolled diction and sentence structure. Words may be used inaccurately so frequently as to confuse readers. Ideas are difficult to get at because of uncontrolled sentences. Such papers are exhausting to the reader and invite only masochists to re-read them.

Using an idea, phrase, sentence, paragraph, etc., from someone else, whether a published writer or friend, (unless given credit in the text via a reference), is plagiarizing. Both direct quotes and paraphrased material must be credited by referencing. Paraphrasing means thinking through a point made by another person and restating it in your own words. It does not mean taking a phrase or sentence from another person and substituting a synonym here and there.   For more details see the document on proper citations.

While experimental and library projects often require different writing styles and rules, there are many commonalties including scholarly work, clarity of expression, adherence to format, and appearance. The following applies to both experimental and library project papers.

Preliminary Pages (in order of appearance)

   Title and signature pages.  Note that the title of the paper (in capital letters) and your name are centered in the upper part of the page. The purpose of the paper is indicated at the bottom of the page. (Example of Title Page; Example of Signature Page.) 

The signature page indicates that the advisor and the second reader have approved the final draft of the project. The title and your name appear on this page using the same format as that used in the title page. Along the lower left hand margin of the signature page there should be places for both your advisor and the second reader to sign the comp after the orals.

   Acknowledgments page.  An acknowledgments page is optional. However, it is customary to acknowledge those individuals who have provided significant assistance in the preparation of the project. Likely candidates include persons who helped prepare stimulus materials, persons who helped type the manuscript (if they were not paid), advisors who provided conceptual assistance, etc. If you decide to include an acknowledgments page, the word ACKNOWLEDGMENTS should be centered and typed in capital letters at the top of the page.

    Table of contents (required).  TABLE OF CONTENTS should be centered and typed in capital letters at the top of the page. All headings and subheadings in the paper should be included in the table of contents.

   List of tables.  If your comp includes tables, a LIST OF TABLES page should be added. This page lists the titles of the tables and the pages on which they may be found. As with the table of contents, the title is centered and typed in capital letters.

  List of figures.  The same rules used for a list of tables page would be used for a LIST OF FIGURES if figures are included in the comp.

  Abstract (required). An abstract is a synopsis of the comp. If your paper is reporting an experiment, the abstract should include a statement of the problem, type of subjects used, independent and dependent variables, the major findings, conclusions, and implications. For an experiment, abstracts are generally 100 to 150 words. Abstracts for library comprehensives are 75 to 100 words. Include the topic, thesis, sources used (e.g., published literature), conclusions, and implications. Abstracts should be succinct, accurate, and provide an informative overview of the project. Abstracts are typed in a one-paragraph double-spaced block (no indentation at the beginning). Center the word ABSTRACT at the top of the page in capital letters.

All the pages to this point (excepting the title and signature pages) should be numbered using lower case Roman numerals, e.g., i, ii, etc. The page numbers should be placed on the upper right hand corner of the page.

Citation Guidelines

The follow set of guidelines are designed to help clarify the problem of providing proper citations in your work. They should be used in your work, and, they should be used in addition to, not in place of, the guidelines provided in the Honor Code. These guidelines are adapted, with permission, from material provided to students in the Psychology Department at the Bishops University in Canada. A summary of the format rules for web material can be found at The Owl At Purdue website with the APA Formatting and Style Guide. Also, keep in mind that APA has recently updated the format for citing material taken from the World Wide Web. 

Guideline 1

Any part of your paper which contains the exact words of an author must appear in quotation marks, with the author's name, the date of publication, and the page number of the source attached. 

Examples: 

According to Rubin (1985), "Our well-developed ideology about marriage and the family... have blinded us to the meaning and importance of friendship in our lives" (p. 9). 

As Lindbergh (1955) has stated, "The problem of the multiplicity of life not only confronts the American woman, but also the American man" (p. 27). 

 It is as true today as 100 years ago that "Psychology is no science; it is only the hope of a science" (James, 1892, p. 311). 

Guideline 2

Material should not be adapted with only minor changes, such as simply combing sentences, omitting phrases, changing a few words, or inverting sentences.

It is a common but serious student error to submit a paper which consists of a pieced- together collection of writings from various sources, in which sentence structure and a few words here and there have been altered, and in which the source author's name has been inserted at irregular intervals. Even though the author has been credited, this is still plagiarism, because there is nothing to indicate to the reader that the style and phrasing are those of the source author and not the student.

Example: 

(original version): 

When he is both awake and contented the young infant's main preoccupation is looking--either in exploring the environment or in examining particular parts of it more carefully. No reinforcement is needed for this response other than the presence of sufficiently interesting sights (Fantz, 1969, p. 48). 

(plagiarized version): 

The young infant's main preoccupation, when both awake and contented, is looking. She/he explores the environment or examines particular parts of it more carefully. The only reinforcement needed for this response is the presence of sufficiently interesting sights (Fantz, 1969, p. 48). 

(acceptable version): 

According to Fantz (1969, p.48) an awake and content infant is primarily concerned with examining the environment. Fantz argues that this response is maintained solely by the reinforcement provided by the interesting sight itself. 

Guideline 3

If the words are substantially your own, but the facts or ideas are taken from a particular author, then omit the quotation marks and reference with a bracketed citation, such as (Jones, 1998). 

Examples: 

Skinner (1974) stated that... 

Babies have an innate preference for the human face (Fantz & Ryerson, 1970). 

It can be argued (Matlin, 1994, Ch. 3) that... 

How we construe ourselves, as Kelly (1955) puts it, is... 

Guideline 4

Always acknowledge secondary sources. 

A "secondary source" differs from a "primary source" in that information comes from one author writing about what another author said, rather than directly from the original author. A student will sometimes try to create the impression of having read widely by citing a large number of papers, none of which have actually been read. Instead, the citations are obtained from a review article or a textbook, and it is the review author's statements about these studies that are the source of the information. In order to avoid plagiarism, you must cite in your paper the secondary source that you used. Moreover, even after reading the article in the original, if you borrow comments about it from a secondary source you must fully acknowledge that secondary source in your paper. 

Examples: 

Melzack (1973) has reviewed the work of Livingston (1943) and Geldard (1960) and concludes... 

Babies have an innate preference for the human face (Fantz, as cited in Scarr, 1973). 

No dates should be given for the work that you did not read, i.e., Livingston and Geldard. When you give a date, you imply that you are citing an original source. The second example above is the proper way to note a secondary source. 

It is recommended that you use primary sources whenever possible. Even if you successfully convert a review into your own words, it will still be someone else's analysis of a particular problem, not your own. Interesting insights are more likely to come from studying the original work rather than a second-hand account of it. Secondary sources such as review articles are best used to obtain references to the primary literature, which you then consult directly. You want to demonstrate your ability to review and organize scholarly material, not someone else's. 

Guideline 5

Every statement of fact, and every idea or opinion not your own, must be referenced unless the item is part of common knowledge.

Some judgment must be used in deciding whether an item requires a reference. If you are uncertain, either check with your professor or err on the side of excessive acknowledgment. 

Examples: 

Psychologists study human behavior. (No reference required.) 

Psychology is the study of the behaving human in a stimulating environment (Black, 1979). 

 A person can be considered a type of machine. (No reference required.) 

A person can be considered a type of holographic microcomputer (Jones, 1977). 

Do not hand in a paper which is the same or similar to one you have handed in elsewhere, unless you have the permission of both professors in advance.

It is dishonest to claim course credit more than once for the same work. In addition, it deprives you of the opportunity of researching and gaining knowledge on different topics, one of the aims of a college education. It also goes without saying that you shouldn't submit (wholly, or in part) the work of another student as your own, or purchase papers for submission. 

Guideline 7

It is an excellent idea to ask someone to criticize a completed paper before you submit it, and to bring to your attention errors in logic, grammar, punctuation, spelling, and expression. However, it is not permissible to have another person re-write any portion of your paper.

ANY paper can benefit from the comments of another reader before the work is submitted. Nevertheless, you should ensure that this process of critical review does not go beyond generally-acceptable limits to the point where an unacknowledged individual makes a significant contribution to your work.

Tables and Figures Producing top quality tables and figures in APA format requires a bit of thought and effort.  These instructions are designed to make the process a bit easier. Figures - Creating Figures with Excel - Examples Tables - Examples Placement Figures A well-prepared figure can convey the qualitative aspects of data, such as comparisons, relationships, and structural or pictorial concepts, more efficiently than can text or tables. Standards for figures. The standards for good figures are simplicity, clarity, and continuity. A good figure * augments rather than duplicates the text * conveys only essential facts * is easy to read, with elements (type, lines, labels, etc.) * is large enough to be read with ease * is easy to understand--its purpose is readily apparent Types of figures. Graphs show relationships--comparisons and distributions--in a set of data. There are four major types of figures, line graphs, bar graphs, scatter graphs, and photographs. 1. Line graphs are used to show the relation between two quantitative variables. They are most often used to show continuous change or when the shape of the curve or curves is important. 2. Bar graphs or histograms are simple, adaptable, and telegraphic. They are used when the independent variable is categorical (e.g., as with different experimental conditions). 3. Scatter graphs consist of single dots plotted on a line graph; the dots are not joined by lines. A cluster of dots along a diagonal indicates a correlation. 4. Photographs have excellent eye appeal. They should be of professional quality and should be prepared with a background that produces the greatest contrast. Many of the design and execution problems involved in producing figures are reduced with the use of the computer. There is a description of several common softwarre packages that produce figures in the Psych600 folder (Plotting.wp). Creating Figures with Excel One of the easiest ways to produce top quality figures is to use the spreadsheet Excel. Although the default settings for charts do not meet APA format standards, just a few modifications of the figure will produce a top figure. There are two basic types of figures that are used in psychology papers, line graphs and bar charts. It is possible to produce both types using Excel. In fact, most of the procedures for one type can be used with the other type as well. Line Graphs One of the most common figures used to present psychological work is the line graph. This type of figure is usually used when the variable on the X-axis is continuous. 1. Getting Started Let's assume that we want to produce a line graph or bar chart of the interaction between the two variables in your study. The study involved looking a male and female college students who were given three blocks of trials using a new typing system. The researcher was interested in how learning (determined by the number of correct responses) changed over the trails. The means for each of the six conditions were determined and then entered into an Excel spreadsheet. There are certainly many ways to do this but a convenient format is shown to the right. Note that we want to include labels as well as data. 2. Chart Wizard The first step in creating any type of figure in Excel is to make use of the Chart Wizard. Highlight all of the data, including the labels. Then engage the Chart Wizard. Chart Wizard Icon The initial choice that the Chart Wizard provides is the type of figure wanted. Select line from the Standard Types then click Next once then Next again (we don't need to change the options provided). Note: If the figure does not look like you wish with the line option, you may want to try the XY Scatter option and then choose the Scatter with data points connected by lines (option in the bottom left corner). This option will often produces a better looking plot if you have more than two lines of data.  The third Chart Wizard screen provides an option to add labels to the X and Y-axes. For the X axis type 'Trial Number' while for the Y axis use 'Mean Number of Correct Responses.' Do not enter a title for the chart, we will do that later. Click Next and then Finished. The rough version of our figure is now placed on the spreadsheet. However, there is still much to do. 3. Chart Toolbar Virtually all of the modifications that we will now do to the figure will be done using one of the options from the Chart Toolbar (View/Toolbar/Chart, then use the pull-down menu to select the chart feature you are interested in). Here is an example of a Chart Toolbar. In this case this toolbar is associated with the Legend on the figure. 4. Options The major options for this part of the chart are displayed by clicking the Options icon. (There is a second may to get Chart Toolbar Options, just double click on the area of interest. For example, if we double clicked on the Legend, we would bet the Legend Toolbar Options.) A) Borders and Lines The first thing we need to do is to eliminate the extra borders and lines in the figure. Bring up the Plot Area Options and change the settings as follows:             - Border: none             - Area: none Then click OK. On the Value Axis Major Griding Options, select Custom color then the box with the color white. Again, OK. These changes should eliminate the borders and griding from the figure. Your figure should now look like this. B) Where to put the Legend? In APA format the legend is usually placed within the figure, not to the side as Excel puts it. But before we can move the legend inside the figure, we need to provide more room. There are two parts of the figure which can be sized, the overall picture (lines, text, and legend) and the smaller area that just contains the lines of the graph itself. Begin by selecting the larger area (click somewhere inside it) and make it both wider and longer (click the small black boxes, hold down the left mouse key, and drag). Now make the smaller central area a bit larger. This should provide space for the legend. Select the legend and then move it to an appropriate place inside the figure. (As you change the size of the figure, keep in mind that the Y axis should be 2/3 the length of the X axis.) You now should have something that looks like this. Before we leave the Legend, note that we have removed the boarders from the Legend. To do this select the Pattern option and then Borders: none. C) Font Size for Labels The font size and type of all of the labels on the figure (Mean Number…, Trial…, 0, 25, …, Male, etc.) can be changed to give the figure a more balanced look. Just click on the label you want to modify, select the appropriate font size and type, and click OK. (A font size of 10 or 12 is usually appropriate. The font style used for this example is Times New Roman.) D) Line Type and Symbols The lines themselves can be changed in a number of ways. Double click on one of the line segments or on one of the end points to bring up an Options panel. Select the Patterns tab. You can change the line type (dotted, solid, etc.) or width. The type of symbol used for each line (called a Marker) can also be changed. Change the lines and markers until you can clearly distinguish between them. Remember that your final product will be in black and white so color can not be used to differentiate the lines. E) Ticks APA format suggests that the small lines on the X and Y-axes, called ticks, should be on the inside, rather than the outside, of the lines. Get the Category Axis Options and change the ticks on Y-axis from outside to inside. Change those on the X-axis from outside to none. F) Error Bars The final items we need to add to our figure are error bars. Error bars are used to indicate the spread of the data and are used to represent plus/minus 1 standard deviation, plus/minus one standard error, etc. Note: Error bars should not automatically be added to every figure.  Include them ONLY when they are needed. We need to use the same Options panel as we used to change the line type. Just double click on one of the lines. Select the Y Error Bars tab. Since we entered the means and not the raw data in our spreadsheet, we can not use Excel to calculate the standard deviations or standard errors. Rather we must use the Fixed value option and enter our standard deviation or standard error which will then be displayed on the figure when we click OK. However, before you click OK, make sure that the proper Display window is selected. Since we want plus/minus, we select that window. What if I want error bars of different length for each point?  Select the Custom option and then enter the values you need with a comma between them.  For example, if you have four points and the error bars should be 6, 4, 5, and 4, just enter 6,4,5,4.  If you want both + and - error bars, you will need to enter the values twice, once in each box. 6. The Final Product The completed figure should look like this. 7. Putting the Figure in Your Paper Once the figure is done to your satisfaction, just copy and paste it into your Word document. It is at this final stage that the title of the figure can be added at the bottom of the figure. Your final product might look like this. Figure 1. Mean number of correct responses as a function of trial number of 20 male and 20 female college students.   Bar Charts In presenting the results of an interaction, it is often more appropriate to use a Bar Chart rather than a line graph. (According to the APA Style Manual, line graphs should only be used when the independent variable on the X-axis is a categorical variable.) 1. Getting Started Let's assume that we want to produce a line graph or bar chart of the interaction between the two variables in your study. The study involved looking a male and female college students who were given three blocks of trials using a new typing system. The researcher was interested in how learning (determined by the number of correct responses) changed over the trails. The means for each of the six conditions were determined and then entered into an Excel spreadsheet. There are certainly many ways to do this but a convenient format is shown to the right. Note that we want to include labels as well as data. 2. Chart Wizard The first step in creating any type of figure in Excel is to make use of the Chart Wizard. Highlight all of the data, including the subject headings. Then engage the Chart Wizard. Chart Wizard Icon The initial choice that the Chart Wizard provides is the type of figure wanted. Select column from the Standard Types then click Next once then Next again (we don't need to change the options provided). The third Chart Wizard screen provides an option to add labels to the X and Y-axes. For the X axis type 'Trial Number' while for the Y axis use 'Mean Number of Correct Responses.' Do not enter a title for the chart, we will do that later. Click Next and then Finished.   The rough version of our figure is now placed on the spreadsheet. However, there is still much to do. 3. Chart Toolbar Virtually all of the modifications that we will now do to the figure will be done using one of the options from the Chart Toolbar (View/Toolbar/Chart, then use the pull-down menu to select the chart feature you are interested in). Here is an example of a Chart Toolbar. 4. Options In this case this toolbar is associated with the Legend on the figure. A) Borders and Lines The first thing we need to do is to eliminate the extra borders and lines in the figure. Bring up the Plot Area Options and change the settings as follows:         - Border: none         - Area: none Then click OK On the Value Axis Major Griding Options, select Custom color then the box with the color white. Again, OK. These changes should eliminate the borders and griding from the figure. B) Where to put the Legend? In APA format the legend is usually placed within the figure, not to the side as Excel puts it. But before we can move the legend inside the figure, we need to provide more room. There are two parts of the figure which can be sized, the overall picture (lines, text, and legend) and the smaller area that just contains the lines of the graph itself. Begin by selecting the larger area (click somewhere inside it) and make it both wider and longer (click the small black boxes, hold down the left mouse key, and drag). Now make the smaller central area a bit larger. This should provide space for the legend. (As you change the size of the figure, keep in mind that the Y axis should be 2/3 the length of the X axis.) Select the legend and then move it to an appropriate place inside the figure. Before we leave the Legend, note that we have removed the boarders from the Legend. To do this select the Pattern option and then Borders: none. C) Font Size for Labels The font size and type of all of the labels on the figure (Mean Number…, Trial …, 0, 25, …, Male, etc.) can be change to give the figure a more balanced look. Just click on the label you want to modify, select the appropriate font size and type, and click OK. (A font size of 10 or 12 is usually appropriate. The font style used for this example is Times New Roman.) D) Ticks APA format suggests that the small lines on the X- and Y-axes, called ticks, should be on the inside, rather than the outside, of the lines. Get the Category Axis Options and change the ticks on Y-axis from outside to inside. Change those on the X-axis from outside to none. At this point your figure should look like this. E) Error Bars The final items we need to add to our figure are error bars. Error bars are used to indicate the spread of the data and are used to represent plus/minus 1 standard deviation, plus/minus one standard error, etc. We need to use the same Options panel as we used to change the line type. Just double click on one of the bars. Select the Y Error Bars tab. Since we entered the means and not the raw data in our spreadsheet, we can not use Excel to calculate the standard deviations or standard errors. Rather we must use the Fixed value option and enter our standard deviation or standard error which will then be displayed on the figure when we click OK. However, before you click OK, make sure that the proper Display window is selected. Since we want plus/minus, we select that window. What if I want error bars of different length for each point?  Select the Custom option and then enter the values you need with a comma between them.  For example, if you have four points and the error bars should be 6, 4, 5, and 4, just enter 6,4,5,4.  If you want both + and - error bars, you will need to enter the values twice, once in each box.  However, if you have a figure with two independent variables, you will need to make sure that you have selected a subset of the bars (i.e., those for one of the variables) and then enter the error terms for that set only, repeating the process for the second independent variable.  F) Bar Patterns We can use the same panel as we used to display error bars to change the pattern of the bars so they are distinguishable. (Remember that your final product will be in black and white, not color.) Select the Patterns option the Format Data Series panel. Chose the Automatic option from the left side of the panel to provide the bars with a border. In the Area section of this panel (right side), select Automatic then Fill Effect. There are many ways you can 'fill' your bars but for a scientific paper the best option is Pattern. If you have two bars in each group, selecting vertical lines for one group and horizontal for the other is often the best option. 5. The Final Product Your final product should look something like this. 6. Putting the Figure in Your Paper Once the figure is done to your satisfaction, just copy and paste it into your Word document. It is at this final stage that the title of the figure can be added at the bottom of the figure. Your final product might look like this. Figure 1. Mean number of correct responses as a function of trial for 20 male and 20 female college students. Tables An informative table supplements--it does not duplicate--the text. In the text, refer to every table and its data. In the text tell the reader what to look for in the table, discussing the table's highlights. If you discuss every item on the table in text, the table is unnecessary. Tables must be intelligible without reference to the text. Explain all abbreviations (except such standard statistical abbreviations as M, SD, and df). In the text, refer to tables by their numbers: ...  as shown in Table 8, the responses ... ... children with pretraining (see Table 8) ... Do not write "the table above/below" or "the table on page 32." When preparing tables, all number should be reported using the same number of decimal places. For example, instead of 3.4, 2.56, and 1, you should report 3.40, 2.56, 1.00. Table numbers. Number all tables in the text with Arabic numerals in the order in which the tables are first mentioned in the paper. Identify tables of the appendix with capital letters and Arabic numerals (e.g., Table A-1 is the first table of Appendix A, Table C-2 is the second table of Appendix C). Table titles. Give every table a brief but clear and explanatory title. The title should be left justified and either underlined or in italics. Examples. Samples of well prepared tables are provided in the Appendix. Examine them carefully. Pay special attention to Table 3, an example of an ANOVA table. Note that the table includes columns for df and F but none for SS or MS. MS error is given in parentheses. See your comp advisor for additional help in preparing correct tables. Placement of Figures and Tables Until recenlty figures and tables were placed on separate pages in a manuscript. The new convention is that figures and tables may be incorporated directly into the body of a paper, if that is convenient. A figure or a table should appear after the first reference to it. That is, a statement such as, "see Figure 1" should appear before the figure is placed in the paper. If figures or tables are on separate pages, number these pages just as you do all pages in the paper. Sample Figures Both of these figures were done using Excel. However, in order to get figures that meet APA style requiresments, as these figures do, it is necessary to move beyond the standard default options.     Figure 1. Mean number of correct responses as a function of trial number for male and female rats. (n = 25) Figure 1. Mean number of correct responses as a function of trial number for male and female rats. (n = 25) Sample Tables The following are examples of tables that meet APA style.   Table 1 Interrelations Between Subscales for Students and Older Adults Subscale                                                               2                     3                     4 University students (n = 200) 1. Tranquility                                                      .93                  -.09                    .73 2. Goodwill                                                         __                  -.34                    .62 3. Happiness                                                                             __                      .14 4. Elation                                                                                                             __ Older adults (n = 189) 1. Tranquility                                                       .42                 -.07                    .52 2. Goodwill                                                         __                  .43                     .62 3. Happiness                                                                             __                      .47 4. Elation                                                                                                             __ Note: r > .52, p < .05.   Table 2 Mean Numbers of Correct Responses by Children With and Without Pretraining Grade Group                                                         n               3             4                5 Verbal Tests Girls     With                                                     18             280           297            301     Without                                                19             240           251            260 Boys     With                                                     19             281          290            306     Without                                                20             232          264             221 Mathematical tests Girls     With                                                     20            201           214            221     Without                                                17            189           194            216 Boys     With                                                     19            210            236           239     Without                                                18             199           210           213 Note Maximum score = 320   Table 3 Analysis of Variance for Classical Conditioning F Source                                                 df                           Finger CR                     Irrrelevant CR Between subjects Anxiety (A)                                            2                           0.76                                 0.26 Shock (S)                                              1                             0.01                                 0.81 A x S                                                     2                             0.18                                 0.50 Error                                                    30                          (16.48)                              (15.73) Within Subjects Blocks (B)                                             4                             3.27**                             4.66** B x A                                                     8                             0.93                                 0.45 B x S                                                     4                             2.64*                               3.50** B x A x S                                               8                             0.58                                 0.21 Error                                                   120                           (1.31)                               (2.46) Note: Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square errors. CR = conditioned response; S = subjects. * p < .05. ** p < .01. Table adapted from the Publicaiton Manual of the American Psychological Association, 4th edition (1994). Washington, D.C.: The American Psychological Association.

The most basic requirement of style is adherence to the elementary rules of grammar and good usage. Following are some explicit suggestions about the use of tense, person, voice and number which are relevant in scientific writing.

Tense

Scientific reports are written in a combination of present and past tense. The literature cited has already been written, the study's procedure has been carried out, and the results have been obtained, therefore these are written in the past tense ("the subjects performed"). Conclusions, on the other hand, are written in the present tense ("the data indicate"). This draws the reader into a "current" conversation with the writer.

Certain other statements are often written in the present tense. A useful rule is that the present tense indicates statements which have a continuing or general applicability. Definitions, statements from a well-defined theory, and hypotheses are stated in the present tense.

Illustrations:

Definition: "Webster defines ..."

"In this study, a discrepancy is defined as ..."

Theory: "The Gestalt theory holds that ..."

Hypothesis: "It is hypothesized that intelligence is (not, "will be") positively correlated with ..."

Results: "Jones established (past tense, particular study) that auditory stimuli are (present tense, general findings) most effective ..."

Scientific communications are usually written in the third person, which often troubles inexperienced writers. There are occasions when the use of the first person is permissible (or even preferable).

The passive voice is used extensively, especially in describing procedures. Do not, however, let the passive voice lead to into clumsy, involved expression. Problems of person and voice are illustrated by these examples:

Bad: "We classified the subject's responses..." ("We" is faulty, unless it refers to two or more defined persons. Never use "we" as a substitute for "I".)

Better: "The investigator classified the subject's responses..." (The statement tells who classified the responses, but without self-consciousness. Third-person references to "the experimenter" or "the investigator" are usual and acceptable. References to "the author" or "the writer" are generally avoided as self-conscious, except in theoretical arguments.)

Bad: "The classification of the subjects' responses was carried out by dividing them ..." (Clumsy use of passive voice. The writing is self-conscious, emphasizing the process of classifying.)

Better: "The subjects' responses were divided..." (Better use of passive voice. The focus is on the research, not on the researcher.)

In psychology it is appropriate to use two or three levels of headings positioned in this way:
 

The three headings would look like this in a manuscript:
 

If the paper requires four levels of headings, subordinate the three levels above by introducing another centered heading using upper and lower case letters and omitting the underlining.
 

Abbreviations

Use abbreviations: (a) if the reader is more familiar with the abbreviation than with the complete form (LSD or ESP); (b) if the use of the abbreviation is conventional (IQ or REM), or (c) if considerable space can be saved and cumbersome repetition avoided.

Because the acronyms that psychologists employ in their daily writing may not be familiar to students or readers in other disciplines or locales, acronyms and abbreviations should be explained. A term to be abbreviated must, on its first appearance be spelled out completely and immediately followed by its abbreviation in parentheses. Thereafter, the abbreviation is used.

Statistics

To present a statistic in the text, give the symbol, degrees of freedom, value, and probability level. In addition, give the mean, standard deviation, or other descriptive statistic to clarify the nature of the effect.

X² (4, N = 90) = 10.51, p < .05

MFdfrNSDtpnz

Use words to express numbers in the following cases:

    (a) the numbers zero through nine,
    (b) any number, above or below 10, that begins a sentence.

    (a) number 10 or greater,

   (b) any numbers above or below 10 that are:

       (1) units of measurement or time
            "5-mg pellets for 3 days"

        (2) ages
            "was 6 years old"

        (3) times and dates
            "8:30 a.m. on May 6, 1972"

        (4) percentages
            "a total of 6%"

        (5) arithmetic manipulations
            "multiplied by 3"

        (6) ratios
            "4:1"

        (7) fractional or decimal quantities
            "on a 2 1/2-year old"

        (8) scores and points on a scale
            "on a 7-point scale"

        (9) actual numbers
            "the numerals 1-6"

        (10) page numbers
            "on page 2"

        (11) a series of four or more
            "1,3,5, and 7"

        (12) numbers grouped for comparison within a sentence or a series of related sentences if any one of 
                the numbers is 10 or above 
           "of the 40 trails, 6 were practice trials" related sentences

An informative table supplements--it does not duplicate--the text. In the text, refer to every table and its data. In the text tell the reader what to look for in the table, discussing the table's highlights. If you discuss every item on the table in text, the table is unnecessary.

Tables must be intelligible without reference to the text. Explain all abbreviations (except such standard statistical abbreviations as M, SD, and df). In the text, refer to tables by their numbers:

...  as shown in Table 8, the responses ...

... children with pretraining (see Table 8) ...

When preparing tables, all number should be reported using the same number of decimal places. For example, instead of 3.4, 2.56, and 1, you should report 3.40, 2.56, 1.00.

Table numbers. Number all tables in the text with Arabic numerals in the order in which the tables are first mentioned in the paper. Identify tables of the appendix with capital letters and Arabic numerals (e.g., Table A-1 is the first table of Appendix A, Table C-2 is the second table of Appendix C).

Table titles. Give every table a brief but clear and explanatory title. The title should be left justified and either underlined or in italics.

Figures

A well-prepared figure can convey the qualitative aspects of data, such as comparisons, relationships, and structural or pictorial concepts, more efficiently than can text or tables.

Standards for figures. The standards for good figures are simplicity, clarity, and continuity. A good figure

* augments rather than duplicates the text
* conveys only essential facts
* is easy to read, with elements (type, lines, labels, etc.)
* is large enough to be read with ease
* is easy to understand--its purpose is readily apparent

Types of figures. Graphs show relationships--comparisons and distributions--in a set of data. There are four major types of figures, line graphs, bar graphs, scatter graphs, and photographs.

1. Line graphs are used to show the relation between two quantitative variables. They are most often used to show continuous change or when the shape of the curve or curves is important.

2. Bar graphs or histograms are simple, adaptable, and telegraphic. They are used when the independent variable is categorical (e.g., as with different experimental conditions).

3. Scatter graphs consist of single dots plotted on a line graph; the dots are not joined by lines. A cluster of dots along a diagonal indicates a correlation.

4. Photographs have excellent eye appeal. They should be of professional quality and should be prepared with a background that produces the greatest contrast.

Many of the design and execution problems involved in producing figures are reduced with the use of the computer. See Figures and Tables for details.

Until recenlty figures and tables were placed on separate pages in a manuscript. The new convention is that figures and tables may be incorporated directly into the body of a paper, if that is convenient. A figure or a table should appear after the first reference to it. That is, a statement such as, "see Figure 1" should appear before the figure is placed in the paper. If figures or tables are on separate pages, number these pages just as you do all pages in the paper. You may also wish to look at the Figures and Tables page for more details.

Regardless of whether your comp is a library project or an empirical study, there are some rules of appearance which reflect professional interest and concern for your work. The appearance of your paper has an effect on how it is received. A neat, clean manuscript indicates that the writer cared about the paper.

Senior projects should be typed on white paper and double spaced, using 1 inch margins on top, bottom, left and right side.  The Psychology Department requires preparation of the original plus two copies of your comprehensive project. The original is placed in the library, one copy is retained by the first reader, and the second copy is kept by the student. As a courtesy, ask the second reader if he or she would like to keep a copy of the comp. In most cases, the second reader will not wish a copy. However, if the second reader is particularly interested in the topic or the presentation, a copy may be desired. The Psychology Department will pay for one copy of the paper. If additional copies are needed for the second reader, for an outside agency that provided participants, etc., the Department will pay for these copies as well.

All the copies of the paper should be submitted in hard cover, three hole red binders available from the Bookstore. In the final orals, there may be recommendations for rewriting a section of the paper or for correcting typographical errors. All such changes must be made and the corrected copies of the paper returned to the first reader within one week of the oral
presentation.

Ordering and Numbering Pages

Pages are ordered in the following manner: preliminary pages, the body of the paper including tables and figures, references, and appendices. All preliminary pages (except the title and signature pages) are numbered using lower case Roman numerals. All other pages are numbered in the upper right hand corner of the page.

Length

There is no department policy on the length of a senior project. Length depends on the topic, the available literature, and a number of other factors. Make certain that your paper covers the topic and that you can defend its length. Consultation with both the first and second reader is advisable when determining the length of a paper.

Word Processing

A single copy of the paper should be produced on a letter quality printer with other copies being made at the College Print Shop.

In addition to word processing, the college has other software that may be useful to the comp writer. These include spelling checkers, grammar checkers, and software to help organize and outline a paper.

Proofreading

Carefully proofread the final copy of the comp before you turn it in. In the process of copying the comp, pages may be missed or be placed out of order. Be especially careful if someone has helped you type the paper. The typists may have made minor changes or errors which are difficult to catch, even if you have used a spelling checker.

Manuscript Checklist

The most common oversights in manuscript preparation are listed below. Pay special attention to these items before submitting your comp.

Typing

________ Is the manuscript double-spaced with the exception of long quotations? Has the entire paper been proofread?

Abstract

________ Have you provided an abstract of appropriate length?

Headings

________ Have you checked for appropriate placement of headings?

Mathematics and Statistics

________ Have you underlined all letters used as statistical symbols?

References

________ Are journal titles in the reference list spelled out fully?

________ Are all references cited in the body of the paper included in the reference list?

________ Is every item in the reference list cited in the body of the paper?

________ Have you included page numbers for quotations in the body of the paper?

________ Have you included page numbers in citations when the material which is paraphrased is from a book?

Tables and Figures

________ Do all tables and figures meet specifications for complete title, adequate headings, etc.?

Project feedback

An important element of the senior project oral examination is the feedback that is provided to the student on his or her performance. Students will be advised at the end of the oral as to whether their project is acceptable or not, i.e., did the student pass or not. In addition, specific comments will be made regarding both the oral and the written presentations.  However, the actual grade on the comp will not be available at this time.  The Psychology 600 grade will be included on the grade report provided by the Registrar at the end of the semester. 

As part of these comments, students may be asked to make minor revisions to their paper. These revisions will be limited to the correction of spelling errors, changing small technical details, etc. Since making these changes is considered part of the original effort, the project will be graded assuming that the changes will be made. However, a student who fails to complete the corrections as required may have his or her grade lowered accordingly.

Grading the senior project

At the end of the final orals, the student is asked to leave the room for a few minutes while the faculty discuss the student's performance. Although the criteria for each letter grade differ somewhat among faculty, just as they do for any course, the department has agreed upon a set of factors which will influence that final grade. These criteria differ slightly for laboratory and library projects.

Laboratory research

The following items are used to judge performance of a laboratory project.

a) Quality of the research idea or hypothesis. (Including originality, utility, uniqueness, etc.)

b) Conduct of the research. (A qualitative evaluation of how well the student conducted the project, including diligence, adherence to methodology, etc.)

c) Quality of the paper.

Remember that these criteria are designed to indicate the range of items that are considered in assigning a grade. The weight given to each factor will vary from instructor to instructor.

Library research

The following items are used to judge performance of a library project.

a) Quality of the research idea or hypothesis. (Including originality, utility, uniqueness, etc.)

b) Conduct of the research. (A qualitative evaluation of how well the student conducted the project, including diligence, willingness to seek assistance, discussion of the project with the advisors during the formation of the project and its completion.)

c) Quality of the paper.

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