Part One:
General Information

In an ideal world, the senior comprehensive project or comp is an opportunity for you to demonstrate the creativity, analytical skills, writing ability, self-reliance, and self-discipline you have acquired during your years at Allegheny. In addition, it provides you with an opportunity to investigate in depth an area of interest within your major. Perhaps the problem is that many faculty prefer the "ideal" while students approach the comp as the final obstacle to entering the "real world." This manual is offered as a guide to students beginning their comp. Hopefully, it will enhance the academically "ideal" experience of your comp and lower the height of the last obstacle as well.

The first section of this manual is designed to get you started. It gives some ideas on choosing a topic and an advisor. The part of the manual entitled Presenting the Results includes the details on such matters as how to number the pages of the paper and what goes on the title page. Separate sections describe in some detail preparing an experimental and a library comprehensive paper. General Rules and Guidelines for Writing the Paper is designed for all students, no matter which type of comp they are completing. This section includes details on referencing, how to prepare a table, as well as some hints and clues to improving your writing.

This manual is a major revision of the Psychology Department Manual written by William DeLamarter and David Anderson. Answers about form that are not answered by this manual can most likely be found in the latest edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Finally, you are likely to have questions at many points in this effort: questions about form, about style, and about content. The final arbiter for any of these problems is your first reader. When you have a problem, check the manual first and then ask.

The first, and for many students, the most difficult part of a senior project is choosing the topic. The prime criterion for selecting a topic is that it must be interesting to you. There are a number of questions which you can ask yourself which may assist you in selecting a comp topic. First, if you have an idea of what you would like to do when you graduate, you can select a topic which is relevant to your future role. For example, if you think that you might be interested in some form of social service work, then find a topic which would be relevant to social service. Second, was there an issue or topic raised in a class or in your seminar which could be developed into a comp topic? Finally, is there some issue or topic in which you are sincerely interested which you would like to develop?

Keep in mind that ideas rarely occur spontaneously or "divinely." Allow sufficient time before the deadline for the proposal to develop an interesting and sustaining topic. You should have a number of possible ideas for a comp by the beginning of the second semester in your Junior year. During the first half of the second semester, spend some time thinking about these ideas and what interests you most. Also, talk to your academic advisor as well as other faculty to get their opinions of your ideas. These conversations can be an invaluable source of feedback, ideas, and clarification.

Along with the topic, you will need to select a first and second reader for your comp. The main criterion for selecting a comp advisor (first reader) is expertise in the area. Second, you should select someone with whom you can work for a full semester. The second reader is frequently not as involved in the project as the first reader. However, this person can be very helpful in formulating the thesis. Finally, check the list of faculty and their interests to see what faculty member(s) might be interested in working with you. 

Working with a comp advisor can be full of rewards as well as frustrations. It is frequently difficult for a faculty member to keep track of eight, nine, or more comps at once. Therefore, do not become exasperated when you advisor does not remember the details of your study. It is quite likely that you will know more about the specific details of your project than your advisor. In most cases, retaining a sense of humor during the comp process will help to preserve a mutually satisfactory relationship.

And always remember that you are responsible for the final paper. If there are errors, they are your responsibility. Therefore, you should always understand suggestions from your advisor before implementing them. If you disagree with a suggestion, state your disagreement and your reasons and then talk out any difference of opinion.

One of the major reasons that students feel pressured when completing a comp is ineffective time management. Self-discipline is extremely important. You must budget your time throughout the course of the year allowing for the unexpected.

Be prepared to write rough drafts of your paper. Few people can simply write out a paper and do a good job. When you ask someone to read a rough draft, make certain that you select someone who will be critical. Peers and the first reader of your project are excellent candidates for this task. 

OK.  Now you are ready to begin.  To get the details of how to do an outstanding job on your comp, click Table of Contents to find the information that you need.  If you want to see what's changed in the comp procedure over the past year or so, go to What's New in the Comp.

The senior project effort in Psychology requires the completion of  Psychology 600 or Psychology 610, Senior Project and Seminar. 

Preliminary proposal 

The comp process begins in the junior year with the submission of a preliminary proposal. This written preliminary proposal is to be submitted on a special form. The proposal should be filed before registration for the fall semester is completed, even if you don't plan to take Psych 600 (or Psych 610) until the spring of your senior year. Although this preliminary proposal is usually only a paragraph or two in length, it should be the product of a good deal of thinking by the student and discussion between the student and his or her comp advisor. The completion of the preliminary form before the end of the spring semester of the junior year will help ensure that every student will be part of an appropriate senior seminar. 

Senior Project and Seminar (Psychology 600 and Psychology 610)

Students meet regularly as a group with the instructor, who serves as their Senior Project advisor, to discuss topics such as ethical standards for research, strategies for literature searches, organization and format of the project, and techniques for coding and interpreting data, as well as the specific projects being carried out by the students in the group.  Each student is required to have at least one meeting with both readers no later than the middle of the semester.  An oral defense of the completed project is also required. 

The purpose of this seminar to provide some structure for students during the initial phases of their senior project effort. In addition, the group aspect of the course should provide an atmosphere for mutual support and motivation, especially for those students who might experience some difficulty in beginning this independent effort.

All faculty provide a seminar like format for their comp students. However, some faculty prefer a more formal seminar with regular meetings times. Students in this type of course should register for Psychology 610.

Juniors should complete a simple form indicating their choice of advisor and a brief description of their proposed project before the pre-registration period at the end of the spring semester, even if they do not plan to take Psychology 600 (or Psychology 610) until the spring semester of their senior year.  This will insure that each student will be part of an appropriate section of the course.

Although the structure of each tutorial will lie in the hands of its instructor, a minimum of 10 hours during the semester must be devoted to group meetings of each instructor with his or her tutorial students.

Students will be required, as part of the tutorial, to make an oral presentation of their project proposal to the entire tutorial group.

A formal preliminary conference with the first and second readers present will be done sometime after the presentation of the proposal to the tutorial but before the end of the seventh week of the semester.

The senior project paper is due two weeks before the last day of class. For the 2007-2008 school year, these dates are Wednesday, November 28 (fall semester) and Tuesday, April 15 (spring semester).

The final orals for each student will be done during the remaining weeks of the semester on a schedule arranged by the student.

Final orals will begin with a presentation by the student of the highlights of the project just completed, usually limited to 10 minutes. Members of the board will then have an opportunity to ask questions and raise issues prompted by either the written work or the oral presentation. 

Senior project boards will consist of a minimum of two faculty members chosen by the student. Where appropriate, students will be encouraged to include additional faculty from both within and outside the department.

Late Papers

The final paper for the senior project is due two weeksbefore the last day of class (due dates).  The only acceptable circumstances that can lead to an extension beyond that deadline are those which are well beyond the control of the student. These include illness, death of animals, failure of some external agency to provide testing material on time, etc. Permission to give an extension for the completion of a senior project is a joint decision made by the first and second readers in consultation with the Psychology Department faculty. Discussions about providing an extension of the deadline should begin as soon as it becomes obvious that the project will not be completed on time. 

Penalties for late papers

Failure to submit a project by the due date will result in a grade penalty of one-third of a letter grade for each day the paper is late. Of course, as with any course, illness or accidents may provide legitimate excuses for a late paper. However, delays due to poor planning or lack of effort are not acceptable. If you think that your project is likely to be late, check with your first reader as soon as it become apparent that you may need more time. Any extension beyond the due date must be approved by both the first and the second readers of the project.

Comp committee

Senior project committees include the student, a major advisor (the first reader), and a second reader. With joint/double majors, three readers are often the rule with two members of one department and one from the other serving as advisors and evaluators.

What the department will pay for

The department underwrites the cost of several aspects of the senior project. At present, we pay all or part of the cost of the following:

- animals, chemicals, drugs, etc.
- purchase of published tests
- reproduction of experimental materials
- copying costs for one copy of the final paper
- other costs that may be incurred by the study in doing

Psych 600 and Psych 610

Although all faculty provide a seminar like format for their comp students, some faculty prefer a more formal seminar with regular meetings times. Students in this type of course should register for Psychology 610.

The latest from APA

The American Psychological Association recently published a fifth edition to its Publication Manual. The Publication Manual is the "bible" that contains all of the rules for manuscripts submitted to all psychological journals. The new edition of the manual included a few changes from the earlier editions. Only those changes which are likely to effect senior projects are noted here.

The APA Publication Manual contains information that will be of interest to anyone who is planning a career in psychology. If you have just one or two questions about a particularly odd reference citation, ask your advisor. Each faculty member in the department has a copy. However, if you plan to go on to graduate school in psychology, you may want to purchase your own copy. See the department chair for information on how to order your own copy.

1. Do not justify the right margin, and do not break words at the end of a typed line.

2. Indent the first line of each reference entry in your reference list just as you would a paragraph (using the Tab function). All subsequent lines of a reference should be left justified.

3. When reporting means, always include an associated measure of variability, such as standard deviations, variances, or mean square errors.

4. Report correlations, proportions, and inferential statistics (F, t, and chi-square) to two decimal places; report percentages in whole numbers.

5. Proceed text citations to non empirical work with a phrase to indicate that you are citing background information.

6. Provide an availability statement for electronic references, consisting of the protocol, directory, and file name for the on-line retrieval.

7. It is not necessary to put figures and tables on separate pages with the "Insert Figure 1" note where the figure should be placed. Just put the figure or table directly into the paper where it should be located or on the next page if it is especially large.

8. Tables presenting complex ANOVA results now have a new format. See Table 3 (last page of the Senior Project Manual) for details. Among other things, tables no longer need include SS and MS, only df and F. MS error terms are presented in parentheses.

9. It is no longer appropriate to use a line graph when presenting the results of studies where the independent variable is categorical. Instead, histograms are more appropriate. A set of instructions for producing complex histograms or bar charts in now included in the Graphs folder.

10. APA has recently updated the format for citing material taken from the World Wide Web.  A summary of the format rules for web material can be found at:  http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.html

1. Use a 10 or 12 point font for your paper. Helvetica is the most popular font to use although Times is also acceptable.

2. Do not use enlarged fonts for titles or headings (although headings may be in bold or italic).

3. Be sure that your tables and figures meet APA guidelines. Although it is great to use computer software to produce a figure, do not assume that just because it comes from the computer, it is correct. For example, figures produced by Excel do not generally meet APA guidelines if you just use the default settings.  You can make quite acceptable figures using Excel, but you need to do a bit of work. (Examples of properly done tables and figures.) 

4. Your paper should have a running heading on each page of the text in the supper right hand corner. The page number should be next to, not below, this running heading.

5. The senior project paper is due two weeks before the last day of class. For the 2007-2008 school year, these dates are Wednesday, November 28 (fall semester) and Tuesday, April 15 (spring semester).

6. If you think you might have problems with completing Psych 600 (or Psych 610) on time, be sure to remember that extensions are only given under the most unusual circumstances and that such extensions can not be given simply with the approval of your first reader; the second reader and the department chairperson must also give their permission. See the section entitled Late Comps for the details on how to request and extension and what the consequences of such a request are.

The sections of an experimental comp are the same as those that you see in a journal article.  The idea is to have sections where the reader can look to find specific details of your study.  Remember, the idea is to help the reader understand what you did, why you did it, and what you found. You may also wish to look at the section on grading experimental projects.

Introduction

The Introduction identifies the independent variables and presents the empirical and theoretical rationale for the proposed study. Organization of the Introduction is critical to an adequate understanding of the problem to be investigated.

Begin the Introduction with a brief paragraph which identifies the major independent variables in your research and notes the general problem to be investigated. This paragraph should also identify and limit the problem to be examined and should prepare the reader for the arguments and logic to follow. The final sentence of the opening paragraph should provide a transition to the first paragraph of the text.

The main body of the Introduction follows the opening paragraph. The major goal in this part of the paper is to provide the theoretical and empirical justification of the study. Doing so will require you to interpret the research relevant to your hypotheses. Basically, the body of the paper consists of the arguments you are developing to support and justify the hypotheses. Research is cited in described when it supports and justifies those arguments. When done well, the body of the paper leads clearly and logically to the hypotheses to be tested.

Finally, provide a narrative overview of the study leading to the specific hypothesis you tested. This narrative overview should not discuss the specific manipulations but rather should describe generally what variables were manipulated. That is, do not refer to specific levels of specific independent variables. Rather, you should discuss the independent variable in general, leaving the details of the levels to the Methods section.

In writing this section, there are a number of points to keep in mind.

   Interpreting vs. reporting. In most cases the definitive study on the problem has not been conducted. If the research had been conducted, there would be no reason for your hypothesis. Therefore, you must not merely report the current state of the literature, you must interpret it. This means that you should keep in mind your research hypothesis as you review past studies. Note how past research is relevant to your research. It is also appropriate to critique past research and/or note implications that relate to your research. In interpreting, rather than reporting, it is useful to write by topic, citing studies which support or do not support certain effects, variables, or relationships. This is in contrast to an overly detailed reporting, study by study, which typically leaves it up to the reader to reach his or her own conclusions regarding past research.

   Too much detail -- too little detail. The determination of which studies are to be presented in detail and which are to be summarized very briefly is one of judgment and experience. Some studies are appropriate to a general review of the literature on that variable whereas others are directly relevant to your proposed study. As a general rule, briefly summarize those studies which contribute to the overview and describe in detail that research which is germane to your proposal.

    Multiple drafts. Organization of a paper is to some extent a matter of trial and error. Be prepared to write multiple drafts of your Introduction as well as other sections of your paper. Try out different organizational frameworks. Allow sufficient time to write multiple drafts.

   Abstracts and secondary sources. Do not rely on abstracts or secondary sources in a comprehensive project. If you allow sufficient time to write your paper, you can obtain most source materials through inter-library loan. Secondary sources and abstracts are inadequate sources of information. In the case of secondary sources, they have been interpreted by the author of the secondary source and it is possible that the original meaning of the article has been distorted. Abstracts do not provide sufficient information about the theoretical background, relevant research, methodology, results, or interpretations to be very useful as sources of information. Their major use is in determining whether the entire article is worth reading.

   Justifying variables. Each independent variable must be justified through an examination of the relevant literature. For example, many studies control for sex effects by including sex of subject as an independent variable. Often, however, the sex of the subject is not justified in the Introduction. Justification of variables should be based on an examination of the literature.

   Hypotheses. Hypotheses should be stated clearly and concisely. If differences among levels of a single independent variable are expected, it is appropriate to discuss hypotheses in terms of main effects. If an interaction is hypothesized, it is not necessary to specify the relationship of each condition to each other experimental condition, unless you are predicting a specific ordering of means.

   Using subheadings and/or transitions. Subheadings can be an invaluable aid in organizing your paper. While short papers generally do not need subheadings, using them in long papers like a comprehensive project can aid in presenting a clear organization of ideas. Be certain that the subheadings used accurately reflect the section of the paper which it heads and that subheadings do not become substitutes for transitional statements. Transitions are sentences which are used to lead the reader from one section of the paper to another.

   Use of quotes. Use quotes only when necessary to demonstrate a point, present a theoretical position, or clarify a concept. Remember that every quote must be explained in the body of the text. Never present a quote without indicating what it means in the context of your paper. Remember that a failure to quote or paraphrase properly is plagiarism, which violates the Honor Code.

The Method section should provide information about how the research was conducted in enough detail so that the reader could replicate the study. By convention and for convenience the Method section is divided into a number of subsections. The following briefly reviews possible subsections. Some variation from this format is possible, depending upon the type of study. Check with your advisor if you need help. The most common sub-headings include the following.

   Participants. This section should provide information on the background of the participants in your research. Note the total number of participants used, any selection criteria, and for human participants, where they were recruited, and if they participated for credit. State if they were randomly assigned to experimental conditions, and how many participants were in each condition. For example:

Forty students were recruited from Introductory Psychology courses on the basis of IQ scores. All participants received extra credit for experimental participation. Individuals were randomly assigned to experimental conditions with 10 students per cell.

   Design and independent variables. This part of the paper specifies the experimental design used in the research along with the independent variables that were manipulated. Factorial, repeated measures, and mixed designs should be clearly stated. Note the independent variables and the number of levels of each. For example:

A 2 x 2 x 2 mixed design was employed with sex of subject (male versus female) and attractiveness (high versus how) as the between subjects variables and trials (one and two) as the within subject variable.

   Dependent measures. This section describes the type and nature of the data to be collected. If questionnaires were used, it is not necessary to provide the exact wording of the questions in this section. However, a copy of the questionnaire should be included in an appendix.

   Procedure. The procedure section describes what happened to participants from the time they entered the experimental room until debriefed and dismissed. The procedure must be reported in sufficient detail to allow the reader to replicate the study exactly if desired. Information such as detailed instructions to participants may be included in an appendix.

Additional sub-sections might include Tests, Materials, Apparatus, or Equipment.

The major point to remember about a Results section is that data are reported, not interpreted. It is appropriate, however, to draw the readers attention to important findings (e.g., significant differences between means, noting which mean is higher). Report the most important data first, then move on to the secondary data. In reporting statistical conclusions, state the magnitude of the test, degrees of freedom, and probability level. Assume that the reader has a statistical background and do not discuss the assumptions for rejecting the null hypothesis. If results are complex, use subheadings to organize them in some meaningful way (e.g., Part I, Experiment I, etc.). Results are clarified by presenting them in tables or figures. See Section II of this manual for details on preparing tables and figures. Supplementary tables as well as raw data may be contained in an appendix if you think that this information may be useful to some readers. Check with your comp advisor as to which data to include in your paper.

Discussion Section

The Discussion is where one discusses the meaning of the results. Begin with a summary of the major findings of your research, whether or not the major hypothesis was confirmed. Following this summary of the results, explain what they mean. First, think about what the pattern of all results mean. When making an interpretive argument, justify that argument through the pattern of results. Second, think about alternative explanations for the data. The secondary measures may indicate whether or not an alternative explanation is viable. Finally, note the future research which your study could stimulate and provide a rationale, from your data, for that future research.

In writing your Discussion section, keep the following points in mind.

   Discuss findings. Remember that you are discussing the entire pattern of results. It is not appropriate to ignore incomprehensible findings. At times you may have to admit that you cannot understand a finding. In addition, do not inflate the importance of findings. If a result is marginally significant, or nonsignificant, do not promote the result as if it were significant.

   Reflect back on your Introduction. Remember that the Introduction of your paper notes the relevance of your study to current research and theory. Now that you have completed the research, what is the relationship between the findings and the theory and/or research which prompted your study?

Include appendices for those experimental material which would be too bulky within the text, for example, verbatim copies of instructions, questionnaires, surgical procedures, etc. Appendices are lettered for reference in the text. Pages of an appendix are numbered consecutively with the rest of the paper and follow the References.

A library comp may involve greater work, intellect, resourcefulness, and time than the typical experimental comp. Library projects may present new ways to look at old data, move the field in new directions, relate previously unrelated areas, develop new theories, etc. In sum, the analysis, integration, and intellect present in library research determines in large part the future direction of psychology as a science. Analysis is generally the result of hard work, patience, and thought which can occur only if you allow yourself sufficient time to complete the project. It is likely that you will have to use inter-library loan to obtain the materials you need.

Unlike an empirical study, there are few rules governing the development of a library comprehensive. Psychological Bulletin, Psychological Review, and the numerous Advances in ... series published by Academic Press provide excellent examples of what a library comprehensive should be. It would be very useful to review some of these publications before you begin writing. You may also wish to look at the section on grading library projects.

Selection of Topic

Earlier in this manual some likely sources for comp topics were presented (Getting Started). For a library project, added criteria must be included. First, a comprehensive project should be an analysis, not a report. A report is merely a "state of the art" paper, whereas an analysis is a reinterpretation of the existing literature. In other words, you should have a general hypothesis based on an examination of the relevant literature, before you begin writing. Among the appropriate goals of an analysis are noting directions for future research, relating the research on a given topic to some other topic in psychology, providing a new theoretical interpretation of an existing body of research, and providing a methodological critique of the current research.

Second, is there enough literature for an in-depth analysis? Make certain that there are existing data on the topic you select, or that the existing research is amenable to reinterpretation. Avoid "trends" or "fads" since there is rarely adequate work to support a library project.

Third, make your topic specific. Avoid selecting topics which are so broad and/or general that you will find it difficult or impossible to make specific comments about the area. Too often, students want to write "about mental illness." While a laudatory goal, mental illness as a topic is simply too general and vague. Think about what you want to write about before you start and narrow the topic to something manageable.

Fourth, have some idea of what you are going to demonstrate through your analysis when you begin to read the relevant literature. Students often have little or no idea of what they want to do when they begin to read the literature. They hope that some ideas will come to them through the reading process. While this sometimes happens, it is rare. The usual result is that students read very broadly, become saturated with the literature, and eventually are forced to write without a firm grasp of what they are trying to do. Have some idea of where you are going when you begin. This initial idea will provide you with a frame of reference when researching the literature. Keep your ideas in mind when you read the literature but be flexible as you read and learn. Consult closely with your first and second readers in defining your topic.

Organization

A library comp should lead logically to your conclusion. Start out with an introduction to the problem which notes the topic of your comp, its importance, and what you intend to show in the body of the paper. Then review and interpret the available literature on your topic, logically leading to your conclusions. Traditionally, a library comprehensive is organized into chapters. What is included within a chapter, the number of chapters, etc., varies from comp to comp and topic to topic. Work with your first reader on these problems. Frequently, more than one organizational format will lead to your conclusions. Think through a variety of organizational structures to see which is clearest and most concise.

Use of Quotes

The temptation to use quotes in a library comp is even greater than in an experimental comp. Use quotes only when necessary to demonstrate a point, present a theoretical position, or clarify a concept. Remember that every quote must be explained in the body of the text. Never present a quote without indicating what it means in the context of your paper. Remember that a failure to quote or paraphrase properly is plagiarism, which violates the Honor Code.

Transitions

Adequate transitions are critical in a library comprehensive. Since a library comp generally involves the presentation of a great amount of literature, it is easy for a reader to get lost, losing the thread of your argument. Transitions from section to section and chapter to chapter assist the reader in moving logically from point to point and eventually to your conclusions. Do not use subheadings as a substitute for transitions. While a subheading provides a brief conceptual outline of your paper, a verbal transition provides a rationale for that outline.

Summaries

Summaries are also helpful aids in understanding a long paper. While the number and placement of summaries depends on the topic, length, and complexity of your paper, some rules of thumb may be useful. First, include a summary at the end of each chapter. This summary can then lead into a transition statement to the next chapter. If any section of a chapter is extremely long, provide a summary at the end of that section. Do not worry about redundancy in summaries. Remember that you will know more about your paper than either reader. Thus, what may appear to be redundant to you may be very helpful to a reader lacking familiarity with the literature.

Figures and Tables

Figures and tables are frequently very useful in a library comp. They can explain a complex relationship among variables, summarize research findings, etc. Figures and tables taken from other sources should be cited and referenced properly. Note the placement of figures and tables in the text in the same manner as in an experimental comp. Finally, use figures and tables to supplement not substitute for textual material. Explain and describe all figures and tables presented in your paper. Consult the section of this manual on figures and tables for details on their preparation.

The Concluding Chapter

The concluding chapter of a library comp is analogous to the Discussion section of a research comp. Thus, many of the same rules apply. The concluding chapter should do more than make vague and general statements about the meaning of the topic and its implications. Be specific! Make reference to the literature you have interpreted throughout the paper. Make certain that all your conclusions are justified by the entire pattern of the data that you cited. When you are speculating in the absence of data, phrase your speculation so that it is clear that you are speculating. If there are data which are at variance with your interpretation, note the inconsistent data as well as the possible reasons why they do not fit with the general pattern. In sum, think carefully about this chapter because in many ways it is the most important chapter in your paper.

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