Specific Careers: Part One, A-M

Clinical / Counseling Psychologist  (Ph.D. or Psy.D.)

Job Description

Overview

Clinical and counseling (C/C) psychologists assess and treat people with psychological problems. They diagnose psychological disorders on the basis of interviews and psychological testing, and they make recommendations about treatment, sometimes conferring with psychiatrists to determine if drug therapy is warranted. C/C psychologists conduct individual, couples, family, and group psychotherapy; the specific techniques and theories they apply vary widely.

Clinical and counseling psychology are technically distinct areas of psychology. Each has its own history, division within the American Psychological Association (APA), and graduate training programs. Clinical psychologists have traditionally attended more to the treatment of psychopathology, using the medical model as a guide. Counseling psychologists have traditionally focused more on helping people through normal developmental crises or problems of living. Another difference might be found in the area of assessment. Clinical psychology training programs emphasize assessment more strongly, with students learning to administer and interpret projective and objective tests of personality as well as intelligence tests. Counseling psychologists are more likely to learn about vocational and career testing and measures of normal personality.

In practice, however, C/C psychologists are very similar. Training programs follow similar guidelines, have the same types of research requirements, and take approximately the same amount of time to complete. Both types of psychologists are eligible for licensure in all states, with services reimbursable by third-party payers (e.g., insurance companies). They tend to engage in the same work activities (therapy and assessment), and they work in similar settings: private practices (35% of clinical psychologists, 21% of counseling psychologists), academic institutions (21% of clinical psychologists, 34% of counseling psychologists), hospitals, counseling centers, community mental health centers, and medical schools.

Typical Job Duties: Applied or Practicing C/C Psychologists

• Conducting psychotherapy with persons with psychological disorders, crises, or problems of living
• Administering and interpreting personality, intellectual, and career tests
• Facilitating psychoeducational and psychotherapy groups
• Giving talks or workshops on specialty areas, e.g., eating disorders, substance abuse, relationship dynamics, sexual abuse
• Directing and administering mental health programs
• Supervising the clinical work of master’s-level therapists
• Responding to crises and emergency situations

Please note: Although most of these responsibilities involve direct clinical service, it is likely that in the near future, the role of doctoral level C/C psychologists will change. Psychologists are expected to be less involved in the practice of psychotherapy and assessment, due to the increasing number of lower cost providers taking on these activities (e.g., social workers, counselors, master’s level psychologists). Instead, C/C psychologists may be more involved in program development, administration, supervision, health promotion activities, community intervention, and public advocacy (see Humphreys, 1996).

Typical Job Duties: Academic C/C Psychologists

• Preparing for and giving lectures/assignments to undergraduate and graduate classes
• Grading tests and papers
• Advising students
• Conducting research and writing/publishing research-based manuscripts
• Supervising graduate students on clinical cases
• Serving on campus and community committees

Job Outlook

Much faster than average job growth is expected, due to the need for new programs to combat increased social problems (e.g., substance abuse, family violence, crime), greater recognition of the strong relationship between mental and physical health, and increased use of assessment and therapy with children. However, despite this job growth, few psychologists will leave the profession (in comparison with the turnover rate in other professions), and consequently, there may be only an average number of job openings in the future. C/C psychologists were not among the top 30 fastest-growing occupations as ranked by the BLS, and clinical psychologists were in the near balance/supply equals demand category in the MSU study.

Potential Earnings

The average starting salary for new graduates with a Ph.D. in clinical or counseling psychology is estimated to be $35,500. (Psy.D. salaries should be comparable.) Median salaries in 1992 were $46,500 in public psychiatric hospitals, $40,500 in community mental health centers and HMO’s, $64,000 in private practice, $53,000 in Veterans Administration hospitals, and $39,500 for university professors. Starting salaries for doctoral level psychologists in Federal government positions in 1993 averaged $33,600; median government salaries in the same year were $54,400.

Professional Degree Required

A doctoral degree in clinical or counseling psychology (Ph.D. or Psy.D.) is necessary to be eligible for licensure as a psychologist. Programs require a full-time commitment for at least 4-5 years (6-7 years is average), including coursework, practicum placements, qualifying examinations, research (i.e., thesis and dissertation), and a one-year, full-time, predoctoral internship.

The Ph.D. (doctor of philosophy) degree in C/C is the traditional doctoral degree, symbolizing graduate training in both the science and practice of C/C psychology. Psy.D. (doctor of psychology) degrees are a relatively new development in graduate training, beginning in 1968; emphasis in these programs is placed primarily on teaching the skills needed for practice. In contrast to Ph.D. programs, neither a master’s thesis or dissertation is required, although a lengthy, high-quality, written report on a psychological issue is usually completed.

How to Find Programs

Clinical and counseling psychology programs are accredited by the American Psychological Association (APA). Attending an accredited program is critical for obtaining licensure and professional employment upon completion of the degree. A complete list of accredited programs is available on the APA home page (address below). It is also published each year in the December issue of the American Psychologist. This journal is sent automatically to all APA members (check with psychology department faculty) and is available in college libraries. As of December, 1997, there were 189 accredited doctoral programs in clinical psychology, 69 programs in counseling psychology, and 9 combined programs. For detailed information about specific programs, check the most recent APA Graduate Study in Psychology guide.

One confusing issue when gathering information about Psy.D./Ph.D. programs is the distinction between academic and professional schools of psychology. In academic programs, graduate training is based in a university department of psychology or education. Professional schools of psychology are free-standing institutions, usually not tied to any university. Professional schools are more likely to stress practice over research (about half offer the Psy.D. rather than the Ph.D.), to admit larger classes (on the average, five times as many students as in academic programs), and to make fewer demands of students. Perhaps most critically, professional schools are far more expensive because there is no associated university to absorb the high cost of training graduate students (often more than $20,000/year). Think carefully before taking on the substantial loans necessary for most students to attend professional schools; salaries for psychologists today, even those in private practice, are not high enough to make paying back loans an easy matter.

Entrance Requirements/Admissions

For Ph.D. programs, an undergraduate major in psychology is expected, with statistics and research methods courses essential. Taking elective courses in varied fields of psychology (e.g., both experimental and applied areas) is preferable to taking all social/personality/clinical area electives. Research experience is also strongly encouraged, and the more independent the research the better (i.e., presenting one’s own project at a psychology conference would be valued more highly than working on a faculty member’s research). For Psy.D. programs, a well-rounded psychology major is also recommended, but research experience may be less critical.

Gaining admission to C/C Ph.D. programs is highly competitive, although standards have fallen somewhat in the past decade because of the increase in professional schools. Although required minimums may average a 3.2 GPA and 1100 GRE-combined scores, many programs do not even examine applications that do not meet a cutoff in the neighborhood of a 3.5 GPA and 1200 GRE-combined scores. Other important criteria: letters of recommendation, well-written personal statements, a good match between applicant’s and program’s interests, research experience, and clinical volunteer or work experience (Keith-Spiegel, Tabachnick, & Spiegel, 1994). Admission to C/C professional school programs is less competitive, and research tends to matter less than clinical experience. For more specific information about getting into graduate programs in C/C psychology, see Nietzel, Bernstein, and Milich (1994) or Mayne, Norcross, and Sayette (1994).

Print Materials/Organizations

American Psychological Association (APA), 750 First Street, NE, Washington, DC 20002-4242. 202/336-5500.

Humphreys, K. (1996). Clinical psychologists as psychotherapists: History, future, and alternatives. American Psychologist, 3, 190-197.

Keith-Spiegel, P., Tabachnick, B. G., & Spiegel, G. (1994). When demand exceeds supply: Second-order criteria used by graduate school selection committees. Teaching of Psychology, 21(2), 79-81.

Mayne, T. J., Norcross, J.C., & Sayette, M.A. (1994). Admission requirements, acceptance rates, and financial assistance in clinical psychology programs. American Psychologist, 49, 806-811.

Nietzel, M. T., Bernstein, D. A., & Milich, R. (1994). Introduction to clinical psychology (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. (Appendix: Getting into graduate school in clinical psychology).

Internet Resources

APA home page (for list of accredited programs, click on "graduate")

Rank orderings of clinical psychology Ph.D. programs

Clinical / Counseling Psychologist (MA)

Job Description

Overview

Master’s-level clinical and counseling psychology practitioners ("C/CPPs" for purposes of this manual; in some states, clinicians with this degree cannot legally call themselves "psychologists") conduct assessment and therapy with people having psychological problems. They work in community mental health centers, psychiatric hospitals, non-profit organizations, and private practices, usually under the direction of doctoral level C/C psychologists.

C/CPPs are trained to do the same type of work that doctoral-level C/C psychologists do, but only four states currently grant C/CPPs a license, which allows them to practice independently. In contrast, master’s level social workers and counselors with the appropriate credentials can be licensed to practice independently in almost all states. (In fact, in some states, C/CPPs are eligible to, and do, seek counseling licenses in the effort to gain career independence.) The Northamerican Association of Masters in Psychology (NAMP; address below) is currently working to change this somewhat discouraging licensing status. Despite the opposition of the wealthy and powerful American Psychological Association (APA), there are signs that this movement is beginning to have an impact. For more information about C/C psychological work as well as information about similarities and differences between clinical and counseling psychology, see the "Clinical/Counseling Psychologist (Ph.D./Psy.D.)" career profile.

Typical Job Duties

See this section under the "Clinical/Counseling Psychologist (Ph.D./Psy.D.)" career profile.

Job Outlook

Faster than average job growth is expected, for all the same reasons that jobs for doctoral level C/C psychologists are predicted to grow. However, C/CPPs face strong competition for jobs from other master’s-level helping professionals (e.g., social workers, counselors, creative arts therapists). The uncertain licensing status of C/CPPs may hurt in the job market where financially strapped mental health centers cannot afford the time or money for supervision. C/CPPs were not among the top 30 fastest-growing occupations as ranked by the BLS, and they were not included in the MSU study.

Potential Earnings

The average starting salary for new graduates with a master’s degree in clinical or counseling psychology is estimated to be $25,000. Median salaries in 1992 were $37,000 in counseling psychology and $40,000 in clinical psychology.

Professional Degree Required

A master’s degree in clinical or counseling psychology is the required degree. A master *of arts (M.A.) degree typically requires a thesis; a master of science (M.S.) degree typically does not, although this distinction is not always maintained. Master’s programs usually require at least two years of full-time study and frequently do not allow students to attend on a part-time basis. Please note: The master’s degree that C/CPPs earn is often called a "terminal" master’s degree to distinguish it from the master’s degree that Ph.D. psychologists may earn en route to their doctoral degree.

How to Find Programs

Terminal master’s degree programs are listed in APA’s Graduate Study in Psychology guide. Be sure to check Sections III and IV, "Graduate Departments Offering Less Than the Doctoral Degree." (Again, terminal master’s programs are to be distinguished from the master’s degrees awarded in doctoral programs.) There are very few terminal master’s programs in counseling psychology.

Entrance Requirements/Admissions

As with doctoral-level C/C programs, an undergraduate major in psychology is expected (although not required), with statistics and research methods courses essential. Taking elective courses in varied fields of psychology (e.g., both experimental and applied areas) is preferable to taking all social/personality/clinical area electives. Both research and clinical experience (volunteer or work) are recommended.

Gaining admission to a master’s program is competitive, but not as competitive as it once was, given the many helping profession options that students interested in a master’s degree now have. Standards are on a par with counseling programs, with preferred or required minimums in the neighborhood of a 3.0 GPA and 900-1000 GRE-combined scores.

Print Materials/Organizations

American Psychological Association (APA), 750 First Street, NE, Washington, DC 20002-4242. 202/336-5500.

North American Association of Masters in Psychology (NAMP), P.O. Box 721270, Norman, OK 73070. 800/919-9330.

Internet Resources

APA home page

NAMP home page

College Student Development Professional

Job Description

Overview

This category encompasses a broad range of positions involving counseling or human development work on a college campus. Student development, or student affairs, professionals work in partnership with faculty and administrators to help students have a personally satisfying and productive college experience. Specific areas in which student affairs employees can be found include admissions, counseling and career centers, financial aid, residence life, student centers, health centers, and athletics. These are also the college staff responsible for providing specialized services (academic and personal) to disabled, minority, international, and commuter students.

Typical Job Duties

Job duties depend on a student development professional’s area of specialization. Some examples include:

• Academic support services: working with individual students to plan academic schedules; coordinating tutoring programs; conduct programs on time management or study skills
• Admissions: recruiting and conducting interviews with prospective students; visiting high schools and participating in college fairs; evaluating college applications
• Career development and placement: counseling students about majors and careers; occupational assessment; maintaining occupational resource library; hosting on-campus job fairs
• Financial aid: counseling students and their families about economic matters; reviewing and awarding aid packages; working with loan and work study programs
• Residence life and housing: supervising undergraduate resident assistants; conducting educational and social programs; providing personal advising, crisis management, and discipline of students
• Student activities: advising student organizations; coordinating leadership development programs; developing wide range of cultural/social programming; overseeing student center

Job Outlook

Faster than average job growth is expected overall due to increasing college enrollments, greater emphasis on higher education, and growing competition for students among colleges and universities. Residential counselors rank 27th on the BLS list of the 30 fastest-growing occupations.

Potential Earnings

Starting salaries vary widely (roughly $24,000-$30,000), depending on specialization area and the size and type of college/university at which one is employed. Median salaries range from $30,000-$35,000. Administrative position salaries (e.g., Director of Admissions, Dean of Student Activities, Career Center Director) range from $30,000-$60,000, again depending on the type of campus and breadth of responsibilities.

Professional Degree Required

Most entry-level positions in student development require a master’s degree. A number of relevant graduate degrees are possible, and although all are related, the names of degree programs vary, e.g., guidance and counseling, college counseling, college student personnel, counselor education, higher education administration, and student development. Each requires approximately two years of full-time study.

How to Find Programs

Because of these varied routes to a career in college student development, identifying and research graduate programs is not so easy as in some fields. The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) maintains a directory of accredited programs in a category called "Student Affairs Practice in Higher Education" (SAPHE). CACREP can send this list or you can examine it via the American Counseling Association web site (addresses below). Consult the list to locate the strongest programs in this general field, but keep in mind that a general counseling degree might also suffice.

Entrance Requirements/Admissions

See this section under the "Counselor, Community" job profile. One difference: The type of volunteer or work experience most helpful for college student development program applicants would likely be in college student services (e.g., working as an RA, experience in student activities, internships in student affairs offices).

Print Materials/Organizations

Collison, B. B., & Garfield, N. J. (1990). Careers in counseling and human development. Alexandria, VA: American Association for Counseling and Development. (Chapter 4: Careers in postsecondary settings).

Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), 5999 Stevenson Avenue, Alexandria, VA 22304. 703/823-9800. Directory of accredited counseling programs.

Internet Resources

American Counseling Association (ACA) home page (for graduate school/CACREP information, click on "Students in Counselor Education" and then "CACREP Directory")

American College Personnel Association (ACPA) home page

National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA) home page

Counselor (Community)

Job Description

Overview

Professional counselors help people with personal, family, social, and developmental problems or concerns. Counselors work with individuals, couples, and families; they may also work with people in small groups. The specific counseling techniques they employ differ according to the nature of their clients’ difficulties.

Counseling is a broad category, encompassing a range of related job titles. Community counselors (also called agency or mental health counselors) typically work in mental health centers, social service agencies, counseling centers, and private practices, emphasizing the prevention and amelioration of mental health problems. This category also includes such specializations as marriage and family counseling, pastoral counseling, and substance abuse (addictions) counseling. School counselors (see "Counselor, School" job profile), also called guidance counselors, work with K-12 students in school systems. Rehabilitation counselors are trained to work with disabled individuals and are often employed by rehabilitation hospitals or social service agencies.

Counseling requires a master’s degree. If a counselor pursues graduate education in counseling beyond the master’s level, the doctoral degree is earned in a field known as "counseling education and supervision." This degree is not needed for independent practice in counseling, but it does allow an individual to teach in the counseling field at a college or university. Note that this degree differs from a doctorate in counseling psychology (see "Clinical and Counseling Psychologist [Ph.D./Psy.D.]" career profile).

Typical Job Duties

• Counseling (also called psychotherapy) individuals with personal problems, career concerns, or psychological disorders
• Counseling distressed couples and families
• Conducting workshops on psychoeducational topics, e.g., stress management, assertiveness training, career development
• Leading therapy groups for individuals with specific types of problems, e.g., substance abuse, eating disorders, depression
• Planning and overseeing the day-to-day schedule at a group home
• Administering a prevention program for at-risk teens
• Recruiting, training, and supervising volunteers to staff a community hotline
• Responding to crises and emergency situations

Job Outlook

Faster-than-average job growth is expected due to a greater societal focus on psychological well-being. In addition, positions may expand as health insurance and public-sector contracts continue to increase funding for master’s-level clinicians. However, government jobs are likely to be limited by budgetary constraints. Counselors were not among the top 30 fastest growing occupations as ranked by the BLS, and counseling was in the near balance (supply equals demand) category in the MSU study.

Potential Earnings

The average starting salary for new graduates with a master’s degree in community counseling is estimated to range from $25,000 to $35,000. The median salary of experienced counselors is estimated to range from $30,000 to $40,000. A wide range is provided because of the diversity of work settings in pay scales (i.e., from non-profit organization work at the low end to private practice at the high end).

Professional Degree Required

A master’s degree in community counseling is necessary for certification and/or licensure as a professional counselor. Accredited programs require approximately 60 semester hours of course and field work and take about two years of full-time study to complete. Many, if not most, programs allow students to pursue graduate degrees on a part-time basis.

How to Find Programs

Counseling programs are accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP). CACREP maintains the following categories of accreditation: community counseling, community counseling with a specialty in gerontological counseling, school counseling, and marriage and family counseling and therapy.

CACREP accreditation is important for obtaining both national certification as a clinical mental health counselor as well as state licensure. Currently most states license counselors; the license is the credential needed for independent practice. In addition to graduation from a CACREP program, licensure usually requires a set number of post-degree hours of supervised clinical experience (e.g., 3000 hours) and passing a national exam.

When researching programs, pay attention also to the concentrations offered within community counseling. This will tell you about a program’s strengths or emphases. For example, if you have a strong interest in substance abuse counseling, you would want to be certain that a program offers significant course work in that area. In addition to substance abuse counseling, other common concentrations include marriage and family counseling, counseling the aged, and employee assistance.

Entrance Requirements/Admissions

Counseling programs do not specify particular undergraduate majors required for admission; a psychology major, especially in the context of a broad liberal arts background, is considered good preparation. A far more important consideration is a candidate’s experience in the human services field. The ideal candidate has both volunteer and paid work experience in diverse settings. Taking time off to gain both experience and maturity would be viewed positively by most counseling admission committees.

Counseling programs are moderately, but increasingly, competitive. Counseling programs in many states have experienced a rise in applications in recent years, probably due to the relatively recent phenomenon of licensing for professional counselors. This change gives counselors the credentials and status of social workers, who have long been allowed to practice independently. The profession might also be viewed as a step ahead of master’s-level clinical or counseling psychology practitioners, who can only practice independently in four states (see "Clinical/Counseling Psychology: Master’s (M.A.) Degree Level" job profile). Students who primarily wish to practice psychotherapy upon graduation (as opposed to conducting psychological assessments) and who see themselves helping people with less severe psychological problems (e.g., problems of living or developmental crises) may be happier with a master’s degree in counseling than in clinical psychology.

Some counseling programs request a 3.0 GPA and 1000 GRE combined minimum for application; others provide no data on minimum requirements. Data on median GPAs/GREs of entering classes is hard to find. From observations of students who have applied to counseling programs in recent years, grades seem more important than test scores, and a strong record of volunteer and paid work in human services can make up for borderline (those below the preferred minimums) grades or test scores, although not both.

Print Materials/Organizations

American Counseling Association (ACA), 5999 Stevenson Avenue, Alexandria, VA 22304. 703/823-9800.

Collison, B. B., & Garfield, N. J. (1990). Careers in counseling and human development. Alexandria, VA: American Association for Counseling and Development. (Chapters 7 & 8: Careers in private practice; careers in public and private agencies).

Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), 5999 Stevenson Avenue, Alexandria, VA 22304. 703/823-9800. Directory of accredited counseling programs.

Journal of Counseling and Development (1995). Special Issue. Professional counseling: Spotlight on specialties, 74(2). (Issue includes articles on each specialty area, on credentialing and professionalization of counseling, and on issues related to specialization.)

Internet Resources

American Counseling Association (ACA) home page or the CACREP list.

CTOnLine (newsletter for professional counselors)

"Cybrary" (a resource bank of links to hundreds of internet sites related to specializations in counseling)

Counseling (School)

Job Description

Overview

School counselors (also called guidance counselors) provide personal, social, educational, and career assistance to students in kindergarten through twelfth grade. Elementary school counselors focus more on helping students understand and deal with personal and/or behavioral problems, whereas secondary school counselors more frequently emphasize advising students regarding college, careers, and jobfinding skills.

In terms of training, school counselors have much in common with community counselors (see "Counselor [Community]" job profile). Graduate programs that offer one specialty typically offer the other as well, and the course work required in each usually overlaps. The basic differences between the two professions are in setting (school systems vs. community agencies) and clientele (children and adolescents vs. individuals of all ages).

Typical Job Duties

• Conducting individual and group counseling with students experiencing personal, social, behavioral, or family problems
• Planning and leading workshops on psychoeducational topics, e.g., drug and alcohol prevention, anger management, study skills
• Administering and interpreting achievement, aptitude, and vocational testing
• Advising high school students about trade or technical schools, college applications and admissions, financial aid, and college entrance exams
• Providing career counseling and teaching jobfinding skills
• Consulting with parents, teachers, school administrators, or social workers regarding student adjustment issues
• Responding to school crises and emergency situations
• Developing a dropout prevention program or coordinating a peer mediation program

Job Outlook

Faster-than-average job growth is expected for many reasons: increasing enrollments; new legislation in many states requiring counselors in elementary schools, greater emphasis on providing high school students with career information, and the expanded use of counselors in crisis situations. However, job growth could be limited by state budget cuts, in which case counselors may be forced to serve more than one school. School counselors were not among the top 30 fastest-growing occupations as ranked by the BLS, but school counseling was categorized in the good demand/possible shortage category in the MSU study.

Potential Earnings

The average starting salary for new graduates with a master’s degree in school counseling ranges from $25,000 to $33,000. (When comparing this to other helping profession salaries, keep in mind that school counselors work a 10-month year.) According to a study conducted by the Educational Research Service, the median salary of school counselors during the 1992-1993 academic year was $40,400.

Professional Degree Required

A master’s degree in school counseling (sometimes called "counseling and guidance") is necessary for certification as a school counselor. School counselors must be certified in the state they wish to work, but requirements for certification vary greatly from state to state. School counseling programs typically require approximately two full years of course and field work, with practicum experiences taking place in schools. Part-time pursuit of this degree is usually permitted.

How to Find Programs

As with community counseling programs, school counseling programs are accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP). However, the more important regulating body in school counseling is a program’s associated state department of education or public instruction, which is the organization responsible for certifying both teachers and school counselors. Many, if not most, school counseling programs are not accredited by CACREP, although this is likely to change in the future. (One advantage of CACREP certification would be that a school counselor could qualify for national counselor certification; it would also be easier to make a switch to community counseling should that ever be desired.)

For a list of accredited programs, you can write to CACREP or visit the CACREP web site (addresses below). For other programs in school counseling, you will have to consult a Peterson’s guide, available in most university career center and academic libraries. Look for school counseling under "education" or "counselor education" headings (not under "psychology"). On the Internet, you might be able to find a list of school counseling programs by first visiting your state’s department of education web site.

Entrance Requirements/Admissions

See this section under the "Counselor [Community]" career profile. School counseling may be less competitive than community counseling, especially at non-CACREP schools.

Print Materials/Organizations

American School Counseling Association (ASCA), 5999 Stevenson Avenue, Alexandria, VA 22304. 703/823-9800.

Collison, B. B., & Garfield, N. J. (1990). Careers in counseling and human development. Alexandria, VA: American Association for Counseling and Development. (Chapter 3: Careers in school settings).

Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), 5999 Stevenson Avenue, Alexandria, VA 22304. 703/823-9800. Directory of accredited counseling programs (school counseling included in this listing).

Paisley, P. O., & Borders, L. D. (1995). School counseling: An evolving specialty. Journal of Counseling and Development, 74, 150-153.

Internet Resources

American Counseling Association (ACA) home page or go direclty to the  "CACREP Directory")

American School Counseling Association (ASCA) home page

Creative Arts Therapist (Art, Dance, Drama, and Music Therapists) 

Job Description

Overview

Creative arts (art, dance, drama, and music) therapists apply the techniques of their respective arts in the effort to improve individuals’ physical and mental health. Most often, creative arts therapies are geared toward work with children and adults with learning, physical, developmental, or emotional disabilities. However, non-disabled populations (e.g., school children, nursing home residents, medically ill patients) benefit from creative arts therapy as well. Creative arts therapists (CATs) are most commonly employed by medical and psychiatric hospitals, residential and day-treatment centers, community mental health centers, rehabilitation facilities, substance abuse programs, and correctional facilities.

It is important to recognize that CATs are both artists and helpers. As the information about training will make clear, CATs are expected to enter graduate school prepared to build on an already solid base of knowledge in their arts field.

Art therapists use drawing, painting, and sculpture as a vehicle for client self-expression, creativity, and emotional release. An art therapist might pose a question to a client and ask that the answer be drawn or painted; in this way, art is used as a tool for gaining psychological insight.

Dance (or movement) therapists encourage clients to express themselves through movement of their bodies. A dance therapy group might help clients, especially females, gain confidence and comfort with their bodies, thereby improving overall self-esteem.

Drama therapists use role-play, theater games, mime, puppetry, and improvisational techniques to help clients act out conflicts, take the perspective of significant others, or release pent-up emotions. Psychodrama, one type of drama therapy, involves acting out one’s internal thoughts, feelings, reflections, and perceptions.

Music therapists organize and conduct musical programs with the goal of facilitating relaxation, providing support, encouraging creativity, increasing self-confidence, and providing an outlet for the expression of feelings in clients. Musical programs might involve vocal, rhythmic, instrumental, or listening activities; instrument instruction; music appreciation and theory; or folk ensembles, bands, and choruses.

Typical Job Duties

• assessing client needs in order to prescribe an individualized creative arts treatment plan
• developing and implementing activities for creative arts groups (e.g., singing, beating on drums, making clay objects, dancing)
• working individually with clients, using the arts to encourage self-expression
• teaching clients basic skills necessary to engage in creative arts (e.g., a dance step, mime, how to use a potter’s wheel)
• conferring with allied health professionals (e.g., psychiatrists, psychologists, occupational therapists, physical therapists) about the goals and objectives for each client
• maintaining records on client progress and assisting in discharge planning
• evaluating clients’ responses to creative arts therapies through observation and interview

Job Outlook

Faster than average job growth is expected due to anticipated expansions in long-term care, physical and psychiatric rehabilitation, and services for the disabled. (However, keep in mind that these are highly specialized occupations, so even though jobs are increasing quickly, they are likely to be less plentiful than in more traditional helping professions.) CRTs were not among the top 30 fastest growing occupations as ranked by the BLS. Music therapy, the only creative arts therapy examined in the MSU study, was ranked in the adequate supply/some oversupply category.

Art and music therapy are the more established creative arts specialties; more jobs likely exist in these areas than in dance and drama therapy. Overall, CATs with the greatest likelihood of obtaining jobs are those who are credentialed in another, more traditional helping profession (e.g., counselor, social worker) in addition to their creative arts certification.

Potential Earnings

According to the American Art Therapy Association, starting salaries for art therapists average $25,000, and median salaries range from $28,000-$38,000. Starting salaries for music therapists average $29,000 and median salaries average $38,000. No data on dance or drama therapists could be located.

Professional Degree Required. A master’s degree, requiring two years of full-time study, is the entry-level degree. The master’s can be earned in art therapy, or it can be earned in a related field with 21 credit hours in art therapy.

How to Find Programs. Art therapy graduate programs that follow specific curricular guidelines developed by the American Art Therapy Association (AATA) are called "approved" programs. Attending an approved program qualifies a student for registration and board certification as an art therapist.

Entrance Requirements/Admissions. The undergraduate major of choice is either psychology or art. Ideally, a student would major in one field and minor in the other, completing at least 12 credit hours in psychology and at least 15 credit hours in studio art. Specific prerequisites in art include courses in drawing, painting, and using clay, plus two other studio classes. Recommended psychology courses include introductory psychology, personality, abnormal psychology (psychopathology), developmental psychology, and, for some programs, statistics.

Competitiveness is difficult to judge. Typical requirements include a 3.0 GPA and "acceptable" GRE scores, but more important criteria appear to be personality and interpersonal qualities, based on an interview, and a student’s art portfolio.

 
Professional Degree Required. A master’s degree in dance/movement therapy, requiring two years of full-time study, is the entry-level degree.

How to Find Programs. Dance therapy programs are approved by the American Dance Therapy Association (ADTA). Currently, there are only five approved master’s programs in the country:

• Antioch New England (Keene, NH)
• Columbia College (Chicago, IL)
• Allegheny University (Philadelphia, PA)
• Naropa Institute (Boulder, CO)
• UCLA (Los Angeles, CA)

Entrance Requirements/Admissions. No specific undergraduate major is required, but a broad liberal arts background with an emphasis in psychology is recommended, along with extensive training in a variety of dance forms (including courses in theory, improvisation, choreography, and kinesiology). Applicants should also have experience teaching dance and experience in service to others.

Despite the scarcity of programs, dance therapy programs do not appear to be highly competitive in terms of application numbers. This may be due to the cost of these programs; all but UCLA are private institutions offering little to no financial assistance. Programs do not generally specify minimum GPA/GRE requirements.

Professional Degree Required. A master’s degree in drama therapy, requiring two years of full-time study, is the entry-level degree.

How to Find Programs. Drama therapy programs are approved by the National Association of Drama Therapy (NADT). Currently, there are only two approved master’s programs in the country:

• California Institute for Integral Studies (San Francisco, CA)
• New York University (NY, NY)

Entrance Requirements/Admissions. No specific undergraduate major is required, but applicants should have a solid background in drama/theatre, including experience in

improvisational drama and theatre performance. Recommended psychology electives include developmental and abnormal (psychopathology).

As with dance therapy, numbers seem to favor applicants at this point. Minimum GPA/GRE requirements are not specified.

Professional Degree Required. The baccalaureate degree in music therapy is an acceptable entry-level degree. Students who have already earned a bachelor’s degree in another field can elect to complete a degree equivalency program in music therapy, offered by most universities with music therapy programs. Degree equivalency programs allow students to complete only required coursework rather than pursuing a second baccalaureate degree.

To enter a master’s program in music therapy, students must have already earned a bachelor’s degree in music therapy, or its equivalent. Graduate programs not only involve more in-depth study of music therapy but usually include a research requirement as well.

How to Find Programs. Music therapy programs are approved by the American Music Therapy Association (AMTA). Write to the AMTA for the list of approved programs (baccalaureate- and master’s-level) or view the list via their home page (addresses below).

Entrance Requirements/Admissions. Students at a college or university with no music therapy program would likely pursue music therapy through a bachelor’s equivalency program, at least initially. Application in this case is essentially a transfer application, meaning that no courses are prerequired. However, the more courses required for a music therapy degree that can be completed in advance, the faster the equivalency is earned. Required courses in music therapy programs include at least 54 credit hours in music (a minimum of 6 hours of music history, 12 hours of music theory, 3 hours of music leadership, courses in basic knowledge of band/orchestral instruments, and courses in a student’s major and secondary performance areas); one course in human anatomy/physiology; and 14-17 hours in psychology, including general psychology, psychology of exceptional children, abnormal psychology, and research methods. The remaining requirements are in music therapy (at least 20 credit hours) and may not be transferred from another program.

Admission is based on GPA, SAT scores, and a music audition. Competitiveness is difficult to gauge, given the nature of the academic program (undergraduate vs. graduate).

Print Materials/Organizations

American Art Therapy Association (AATA), 1202 Allanson Road, Mundelein, IL 60060. 847/949-6064. General information packet including a list of educational standards and educational programs costs $3.

American Dance Therapy Association (ADTA), 10632 Little Patuxent Parkway, 2000 Century Plaza, Suite 108, Columbia, MD 21044. 410/997-4040.

American Music Therapy Association (AMTA), 8455 Colesville Road, Suite 1000, Silver Spring, MD 20910. 301/589-3300. Free introductory materials and educational program list.

National Association for Drama Therapy (NADT), 5505 Conn. Avenue, Washington, DC 20015. 202/966-7409.

Internet Resources

AATA home page

ADTA home page

AMTA home page

NADT home page

Health Education / Promotion Specialist

Job Description

Overview

Health educators plan and facilitate educational programs designed to improve the health of children, adults, and communities. Issues addressed by health educators include disease prevention, adolescent sexuality, pregnancy and childbirth, smoking cessation, substance abuse, child safety, and environmental hazards. Health educators strive to promote healthy lifestyles, developing activities designed to encourage healthy eating, exercise, or stress management. Health educators work in public schools, colleges and universities, public health departments, hospitals and managed care settings, non-profit community organizations, and business/industry.

Typical Job Duties

• planning health education curricula for secondary school students
• teaching a sex education class
• providing workshops to college students on substance abuse, sexually transmitted diseases, or sexual victimization in dating
• tracking the spread of an infectious disease within a community
• organizing a health fair at a city shopping mall, a community walking program, or a road race for charity fundraising event
• evaluating the effectiveness of a program to decrease the incidence of a sexually transmitted disease
• researching new methods of encouraging child safety seat use
• educating international travelers about health and sanitation issues in other countries

Job Outlook

The Occupational Outlook Handbook does not provide information about the health education profession. A related category, "instructors and coaches, sports and physical training" was ranked 28th on the BLS list of the 30 fastest growing occupations. Public health was in the near balance/supply equals demand category of the MSU study.

Potential Earnings

Starting salaries are estimated to range from $25,000-$34,000. No information on median salaries could be located.

Professional Degree Required

A master’s degree in health education is necessary for certification as a Certified Health Education Specialist. Note that the names of graduate degree programs in this area vary, e.g., health education, health promotion, public health, community health, and health behavior. Programs tend to require approximately two full years of study.

How to Find Programs

Health education programs are accredited by the American Association for Health Education (AAHE), which maintains a graduate directory of all approved master’s programs (address below). This list is also provided in the September/October (1997) issue of the Journal of Health Education.

When looking in a university catalogue for a health education program, remember that not only do the specific names of degree programs vary, but also the departments or college divisions that offer them. Try departments of health or health sciences, public health, or education.

Entrance Requirements/Admissions

A variety of undergraduate social science or science majors (including psychology) are acceptable. Prerequisites differ across programs, but may include anatomy and physiology, chemistry, or courses in the behavioral sciences. Volunteer or work experience in the health education field is a plus.

Programs range in their competitiveness. Public health programs tend to describe more stringent criteria than health education programs, but requirements do vary greatly. Programs with minimum GPAs of 2.75 and "satisfactory" GREs are not uncommon, just as programs whose entering students have combined GRE averages of 1200 are represented.

Print Materials/Organizations

American Association for Health Education (AAHE), 1900 Association Drive, Reston, VA 20191-1599. 800/213-7193. State-by-state directory of health education programs (cost, $4.50).

Journal of Health Education (1997). September/October issue has listing of health education programs.

Internet Resources

AAHE home page

Human Resource Development Specialist

Job Description

Overview

The human resources department in an organization is typically responsible for recruiting and orienting employees, establishing and administering employee services, designing and organizing training and development programs, and ensuring equal employment opportunity. Specific jobs within the field are highly variable. In a small company, one person may oversee all human resource development (HRD) roles, whereas in a large company, the duties may be divided into as many as 20 different job titles. The majority of HRD specialists (85%) work in the private sector, which includes service industries (health, social, and educational services), labor organizations, manufacturing industries, and financial firms. The remaining 15% work in federal, state, and local government offices.

Typical Job Duties

• Recruitment: advertising new positions, collecting applications, interviewing job candidates, orienting new employees to policies and procedures
• Salary and benefits administration: establishing and maintaining the pay system, overseeing the performance evaluation system, handling insurance and pension plans
• Employee assistance: arranging company-sponsored social activities, supervising employee recreation activities, conducting career and personal counseling
• Training and development: offering workshops to employees, organizing programs offered by outside professionals, helping employees develop skills needed to succeed on the job
• Equal employment opportunity: establishing and monitoring affirmative action programs, reviewing company practices related to hiring and promotion of minorities/females, investigating discrimination charges
• Other: resolving or mediating disputes, helping employees’ transition out of a company, analyzing data that will be useful to management in making personnel decisions

Job Outlook

Faster-than-average job growth is expected, but the job market is competitive. New jobs will be primarily in the private sector, where more resources will need to be devoted to job-specific training programs because of increasingly complex jobs. In addition, new legislation regarding employee hiring and benefits has resulted in a need for experts in these areas. HRD was not ranked among the top 30 fastest-growing occupations in the BLS study, although human resources training was listed as a "hot job" in an October, 1997, issue of U.S. News & World Report. HRD was in the near balance/supply equals demand category of the MSU study.

Potential Earnings

Starting salaries for new graduates with a master’s degree in human resources in 1993 averaged $30,500. Median salaries in 1992 ranged from $32,000-$45,000, depending on the area. In a 1996 study, median salary estimates for HR records specialists were $30,600; for HR information systems specialists, $38,800; for HR consultants, $55,000; for affirmative action specialists, $38,200; and for recruitment managers, $63,800.

Professional Degree Required

A master’s degree in HRD or a related field is increasingly important for employment. To be certified as a Professional or Senior Professional in Human Resources, either a bachelor’s or a master’s degree is sufficient, but a master’s degree allows one to obtain certification much more quickly. For liberal arts graduates with little experience in HRD, a master’s program is essential. Programs tend to require two years of study, with part-time enrollment usually allowed.

How to Find Programs

The Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD) provides a list of graduate programs in HRD on its home page (address below), but only programs that have faculty members who are AHRD members are included. Consequently, this list cannot be considered complete. Another strategy is to look up HRD in a Peterson’s Guide, available in university career centers and libraries (or on the Internet, in abbreviated form). Note that HRD is listed under Business Administration and Management.

Entrance Requirements/Admissions

No specific undergraduate major is required, although a social science or management major is typical. Volunteer or work experience in HRD is a plus. Programs do not appear to be highly competitive. Minimum requirements are typically a 3.0 GPA during the last 60 semester hours and a 900 on the GRE combined.

Print Materials/Organizations

American Society for Training and Development (ASTD), 1640 King Street, Box 1443, Alexandria, VA 22313-2043. 703/683-8100.

DeGalan, J., & Lambert, S. (1995). Great jobs for psychology majors. Lincolnwood, IL: VGM Career Horizons. (Chapter 12: Human resources).

Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM), 1800 Duke Street, Alexandria, VA 22314. 703/548-3440.

Internet Resources

Academy of Human Resource Development home page (to find list of programs with faculty who are members of AHRD, click on "Plan an HRD Career")

ASTD home page

Human resource development, general information (links to many organizations and resources)

SHRM home page

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