Dominion v. Stewardship: Jewish Directive for Environmental Action

Did God create the earth for the use of humankind? Or was humankind created to care for the earth? Perhaps neither were created for the sake of the other, but all were created for all. The quote of Tivka Frymer-Kensky (above) gives the best answer: we do not know. Does the term "dominion" give us unlimited rights to use the earth according to our wants, or were we given a responsibility of stewardship, to manage the Creation of God? The debate over dominion versus stewardship has raged during the past few decades in which the environment has become a hot-button issue and religion has been identified as a culprit in our environmental mismanagement. I believe that popular critiques of the influence of religion on the environment are based on faulty analysis of the environmental ethic as it exists within the Jewish tradition. I believe that Lynn White Jr. and other critics based their attacks on the Judeo-Christian tradition on a flawed reading of the opening of Genesis, analyzing the text from a scientific viewpoint which did not take into account the inherent difference in approaches necessary to study scientific and religious texts. The sense of conflict between Judaism and the environment is often supported by a reading of biblical texts and Jewish literature from a viewpoint far removed from that of people of faith (2). Below is a commentary on Lynn White Jr's major points and an exploration of Jewish literature which provides evidence of a strong, Jewish ethic for environmental action. Unfortunately, despite the evidence of a strong directive for environmental ethic within Judaism, and the roots of the Christian faith, this has not translated to contemporary society. This gap between theory and practice is symptomatic of the divide between the modern individual and nature, further discussed in the section on contemporary context.

Lynn White Jr. and Dominion
The Story of Noah
Bal Tashchit
Sustainability
Eleventh Commandment
Full Text

In March 1967, Lynn White Jr. delivered his well-known speech, "The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis" during a meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. His speech placed blame for the environmental crisis on the modern fusion of science and technology and the use of that technology to exploit nature. For both of these practices, Lynn White Jr. blamed the Judeo-Christian tradition and the idea of human dominion over the earth.

Destructive Applications of Technology:
One of the cornerstones of White's argument is that the 'Judeo-Christian tradition' is responsible for the ecological change and potential for destruction brought on by recent developments in science and technology. He repeats the idea of "recent" developments by assuring the reader that in the last century, "the impact of our race upon the environment has so increased in force that it has changed in essence…[and] no creature other than man has ever managed to foul its nest in such short order" (3). It is true that the monotheistic tradition has made a substantial impact on science. Monotheism removed gods from natural objects, and created in their study a means by which humankind can hope to gain an understanding of the mind of God through the study of his Creation (4). This idea was the basis of appeal for many significant figures in scientific history, including Newton and Galileo, who considered themselves more as theologians than scientists (5). Rather than proving that the monotheistic tradition was the catalyst for the scientific horrors of our time, White himself points out that "it was not until the late 18th century that the hypothesis of God became unnecessary to many scientists" (6). The removal of God from science predates the recent developments of science and technology which White all too accurately identifies to be the cause of our environmental ails. Thus, White exposes the loophole in his own argument, perhaps it was not the early scientific pursuit of knowledge, which often coincided with the pursuit of God, but the more recent application of that science for materialistic gains, without concern for God, which is the culprit for our environmental ails.

Dominion:
(26) Then God said, 'Let us make humankind in our image, according to our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the wild animals of the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth.' (27) So God created humankind in his image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them. (28) God blessed them, and God said to them, 'Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the earth.'

(29) God said, 'See, I have given you every plant yielding seed that is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree with seed in its fruit; you shall have them for food. (30) And to every beast of the earth, and to every bird of the air, and to everything that creeps on the earth, everything that has the breath of life, I have given every green plant for food.' And it was so. (31) God saw everything that he had made, and indeed, it was very good. And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day. (Gen 1:26-31).

There has been much blame pointed at Genesis I for todays' environmental ails, an argument which hinges on the inferred meaning of one word, "dominion". Many critics of the Judeo-Christian tradition argue that it is the cause for Western societies "man over nature" mode of thinking. Others, particularly Talmudic commentators, see it as nothing other than an assertion of "human primacy in the natural order, in physical, intellectual, and spiritual terms" (7), a standing reflected in Adam's physical dominance, upright stature and unique ability to recognize God. In the words of E. L. Allen, Adam "ris[es] above nature because he is designed for a relation to God into which [nature] cannot enter" (8). No clear right of dominion over the environment is given to humankind, merely an acknowledgment of the responsibility of dominion, of maintaining the Creation, which is placed on humankind due to their likeness to God and desire for his divine grace, received through the fulfillment of his commandments.

Genesis Rabbah (8.12) explains God's proclamation as both celebration and warning, based on the different meanings of the Hebrew word used for dominion, which can be read as yirdu, "shall rule" or as yer-du, "they will descend" or as yeradu, "they will be ruled" depending on the pronunciation of the vowels (9). This idea is elaborated by Rashi, a medieval rabbi and author of the first comprehensive commentaries on the Hebrew Bible, who studied the exact usage of words in scripture. The various meanings of the yrdu signifies, according to Rashi, that "if [man] is worthy, he dominates over the beasts and cattle, if he is not worthy, he will sink lower than them, and the beasts will rule over him" (10).

The recitation of blessings, for everything from wine and bread to smelling spices and seeing a rainbow, is a reminder that "man speaks not as the master of nature, but by the grace and goodness of God, as its beneficiary" (11).

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Outside of the Garden:
"(17)...cursed is the ground because of you;
in toil you shall eat of it all the days of your life;
(18) thorns and thistles it shall bring forth for you;
and you shall eat the plants of the field.
(19) By the sweat of your face
you shall eat bread..." (Gen 3:17-19)

Covenant with Noah and the Natural World:
(3) Every moving thing that lives shall be food for you; and just as I gave you the green plants, I give you everything. (4) Only, you shall not eat flesh with its life, that is, its blood. (5) For your own lifeblood I will surely require a reckoning: from every animal I will require it and from human beings, each one for the blood of another, I will require a reckoning for human life. (6) Whoever sheds the blood of a human, by a human shall that person’s blood be shed; for in his own image God made humankind. (7) And you, be fruitful and multiply, abound on the earth and multiply in it.’ (8) Then God said to Noah and to his sons with him, (9) ‘As for me, I am establishing my covenant with you and your descendants after you, (10) and with every living creature that is with you, the birds, the domestic animals, and every animal of the earth with you, as many as came out of the ark. (11) I establish my covenant with you, that never again shall all flesh be cut off by the waters of a flood, and never again shall there be a flood to destroy the earth.’ (12) God said, ‘This is the sign of the covenant that I make between me and you and every living creature that is with you, for all future generations" (Genesis 9: 3-12).

The story of Noah is an illustration of the intertwined fate of humankind and nature. Starting in Chapter 3 of Genesis, the actions of humankind diminished the natural fertility of the world. At first, the garden required tending only, then the soil outside the garden needed to be tilled, and when the blood of Abel cursed the ground it would no longer yield. In the story of Noah, the flood comes as a response to the curse of mankind upon creation. It is not the story of God allowing one man and his family to be saved from the Flood, but of God allowing one man and his family to be saved under the condition that he first ensures the survival of every other living thing (12). The convenant established between God and Noah after the flood is not established for Noah and his family alone, but between God and all living things.

In the covenant the three laws set by God are meant to protect the earth from receiving punishment for human faults. "In the first, humans are told to be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth, probably the only command of God that we've ever fully obeyed. Next, they are told to refrain from eating blood because that is the life: hierarchy does not imply total domination. The third regulation emphasizes that no one can kill human beings, those responsible for the earth, and demands the death penalty for that terrible crime…these laws do not prevent violence. However, they do protect the earth from being polluted by lawless behavior" (13). These laws do not sever the link between humankind and nature, but mute the wild fluctuations.

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Lo tashchit "you must not destroy" led to a biblical injunction of bal taschit, or "you shall not needlessly destroy". The law of bal tashchit is a reminder to respect all parts of creation.

There is a tale of a farmer, who was clearing stones from his field and tossing them onto the public road, "A pious man rebuked him, saying, 'Worthless one! Why are you clearing stones from land which is not yours and depositing them on property which is yours?' The farmer scoffed at him for this strange reversal of facts. In the course of time the farmer had to sell his field, and as he was walking on the public road, he fell on those same stones he had thoughtlessly deposited there. He then understood the truth of the man's words: the damage he had wrought in the public domain was ultimately damage to his own property and well-being" (14). This story is easily extrapolated into contemporary society, as the world grapples with remorse and the urgent need to repair the damage caused by our carelessness in recent decades.

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The following is a popular Tu B'Shevat tale, which highlights a Jewish ethic of stewardship.
Long ago, there lived a man named Honi. One day he saw an old man planting a carob tree. Honi said to him: "Foolish man, do you think you will live to eat and enjoy the fruit of the tree you plant today? It will not bear fruit for many, many years". The old man replied: "I found trees in the world when I was born. My grandparents planted them for me. Now I am planting for my grandchildren." (15).

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In the 1940s, long before the world's scientists began to speak of global climate change, Walter C. Lowdermilk, Chief of Research of the Soil Conservation Service, first argued the need for an eleventh commandment to have been delivered by Moses, one which would read:

"Thou shall inherit the holy earth as a faithful steward, conserving its resources and productivity from generation to generation. Thou shalt safeguard thy fields from soil erosion, thy living waters from drying up, thy forests from desolation, and protect thy hills from over-grazing by thy herds, so that thy descendants may have abundance forever. If any shall fail in this stewardship of the land thy fruitful fields shall become sterile stony ground and wasting gullies, and thy descendants shall decrease and live in poverty or be destroyed from off the face of the earth" (16).

While there was no such eleventh commandment delivered by Moses, the spirit of the commandment is found extensively throughout the Hebrew Scriptures and Jewish literature. The message is oft-repeated that responsible fulfillment of humankind's commitment to the environment will result in spiritual fulfillment, while neglect or destruction of the gift of Creation given to us will lead to human downfall. This message is an undeniable command for environmental action.

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Bibliography

(1), (13): Frymer-Kensky, Tivka. "Ecology in a Biblical Perspective". In Worldviews, Religion and the Environment: A Global Anthology, edited by Richard C. Foltz, 290-6. California: Wadsworth-Thomson, 2003.

(2), (7), (9): Cohen, Jeremy. "On Classical Judaism and Environmental Crisis." In Judaism and Environmental Ethics, edited by Martin D. Yaffe, 73-39. New York: Lexington, 2001.

(3), (4), (5), (6): White, Lynn Jr. "The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis." Science 155 (1967): 1203-7. JStor (7 June 2006).

(8): Allen, E.A. "The Hebrew View of Nature." In Judaism and Environmental Ethics, edited by Martin D. Yaffe, 73-39. New York: Lexington, 2001.

(10), (12): Hutterman, Aloys. The Ecological Message of the Torah. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999.

(11), (14): Helfand, Jonathan. "Judaism and Environmental Ethics." In Religion and Environmental Crisis, edited by Eugene C. Hargrove, 38-52. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986.

(15): Bush, Rabbi John. Tu B'Shevat Seder Booklet. Temple Anshe Hesed. Received 15 December 2007.

(16): Lowdermilk, Walter C. "The Eleventh Commandment". In Worldviews, Religion and the Environment: A Global Anthology, edited by Richard C. Foltz, 12-16. California: Wadsworth-Thomson, 2003.