Allegheny College -Department of Environmental Science

Environmental Science Senior Projects -1992

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NAME: Jennifer Bernacki
DATE: 5/7/92
MAJORS: Environmental Studies and Political Science
THESIS COMMITTEE: Dr. Palmer, Professor Stevens, and Dr. Wissinger

TITLE: Pesticide Policy, the EPA and the Interest Group: Uncontrolled Participation and Policy Failure

The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act of 1947 (as well as its ensuing amendments) is a comprehensive, but ultimately vague and inefficient, law which provides the general blueprint for pesticide regulation. However, this Act has supplied ample opportunity for numerous actors to enter the policy arena. Every division of government that is involved in the pesticide program is, to some degree, subject to outside pressures. Interest groups, representative of both the agricultural industry and the environmental sector, have attempted to gain influence in policy directive by employing such pressures throughout the government. Moreover, the uncontrolled participation of these non-governmental interest groups (most notably with the EPA and Congress) have ultimately frustrated the creation, implementation and maintenance of a truly cohesive pesticide policy. While interest groups are essential to the U.S. pluralist system of government, when they are allowed to enter the area of policy direction, their participation becomes problematic- there are seemingly no structural "checks and balances" to counter their influence. As a result, policy is no longer designed solely for the betterment and protection of society, but for the furthering of individual interests of lobbyists. The indemnification program of the EPA (its creation as well as its removal) offers one case study of the relationship between interest group participation and the failure of the domestic pesticide program.

NAME: Lori Binnie
DATE: April 17, 1992
MAJOR: Environmental Science
THESIS COMMITTEE: Prof. Mark Lord and Prof. Rich Bowden

TITLE: A "Worst-Case" Scenario Contaminant Leak: Seneca Landfill, Butler County Pennsylvania

On December 31, 1990, the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources ordered Vogel Disposal Service, Inc. to close a landfill operating in an old strip mine in Jackson and Lancaster Townships, Butler County Pennsylvania. Prior to the landfill's closing, Vogel began submitting petitions to the Department of Environmental Resources asking permission to expand landfill development at the site. Vogel's intentions were to develop 20.6 additional acres as the Seneca Landfill, Inc. Many of the chemicals dumped in municipal solid waste landfills possess the potential to leak out. Even sites protected with state-of-the-art leachate barriers and leachate collection systems have been shown to be ineffective in containing contaminants associated with landfill leachate. Groundwater contamination is the most common form of water contamination associated with landfill leachate. A number of geologic and hydrogeologic variables are important controls in the migration of leachate contaminants into groundwater supplies. Through an examination of geologic and hydrogeologic data at the proposed Seneca Landfill site, documented findings of research, and data from other landfill sites this comprehensive project shows that the Seneca Landfill site is not an appropriate setting for a landfill where groundwater protection is the primary concern.

NAME: Tanya A. Boyle
DATE: December 1991
MAJOR: Environmental Studies
THESIS COMMITTEE: Dr. S. Wissinger

TITLE: The Impact of Organic Litter and Nitrogen Additions on Nitrogen-Fixation in a Constructed Salt Marsh

Salt marshes exhibit some of the highest levels of primary productivity of all ecosystems. This is partly due to the fact that nitrogen, although limiting, is continually supplied by N2- fixing bacteria in the sediment and associated with the roots of salt marsh grasses. N2-fixation rates of bacteria associated with Spartina alternoflora roots were studied in a constructed marsh near the State Port in the Newport River Estuary near Morehead City, N.C. Rates of acetylene reduction activity (ARA). an indicator of N2-fixation, were compared between control plots and experimental treatments with added peat, nitrogen and both. ARA measured on excised roots was significantly greater for marsh plots amended with peat growing for two years than for marsh plots amended with peat growing for only one year. These rates were lower than those found in the control plots or natural marsh, although the differences are not significant. Transplanted Spartina may require a year or more to develop active N2-fixing bacteria populations in the rhizosphere similar to those in a natural marsh. In addition, root samples
which had been rinsed of all sediment exhibited significantly lower ARA than root samples which had sediment still attached. This suggests N2-fixing bacteria are predominately located in the soil of the rhizosphere rather than directly on the root surface. Results also indicated nitrogen fertilizer suppressed N2-fixation rates. Although N2-fixation is only one process within an entire system, this study stresses the question of whether or not exchanging a particular area of natural wetland with a restored or constructed wetland wholly satisfies the "no net loss" policy of environmental preservation.

Name: SUSAN H CASTOR
Date: April 17, 1992
Major: Environmental Studies
Thesis Committee: Dr. Lord, Dr. Azzarello

Title: An Environmental Analysis of Children's Literature from the 1940's to the 1980's

In the past, children's literature has followed the trends of society (Sutherland, 1986). One recent trend is the increasing environmental awareness amidst the general public. It can be expected that this awareness would, likewise, be reflected in children's literature. This study was designed to determine if the environmental messages that children receive has become more prevalent in children's literature over the past five decades. Ten books were chosen in each decade from the 1940's to the 1980'a. Six books were the best-sellers and four books were the most often checked out of local libraries. Each book was evaluated on the basis of five environment-related categories: Animals - How they are perceived; Animals - The way that they are treated by humans; Plants - The way that they are perceived and treated; Landuse; and Wastefulness and Pollution. A final score was determined for each book. The scores were arranged by decade and the averages for each decade were calculated. The hypothesis was that the decade averages would follow society's trends of increased environmental awareness after 1960, with a small decrease occurring during the 1980's. The results, however, showed no statistical difference from one decade to the next, although trends could be seen in the data. There was a statistical difference found between the average score of the 1950's and the 1970's. The 1970's had the highest average score and the 1960's had the second highest average score. The 1950's and the 1940's had the lowest average scores respectively.

Name: John Dinkins
Major: Environmental Studies
Thesis Committee: Dr. Lord, Dr. Schwartz.

Title: What is the influence of underlying bedrock and channel sediment on channel cross sectional geometry? A comparison of three sections of Gator Run.

Stream morphology changes over time. Different factors can be studied about stream channels to better understand how the streams shape and will eventually form.

This paper examines two facets of a stream that affect the cross sectional morphology: underlying bedrock and channel sediment. Combining methodology from previous scientific studies done on streams, this analysis unveils the depth to bedrock, the relief of underlying bedrock, and details the sediments in the channel bed of a small first order stream named Gator Run in Meadville, Pennsylvania.

The data is illustrated in nine cross section profiles at sites located upstream, midstream, and downstream reaches of Gator Run. The data gathered at these upstream, midstream, and downstream sites is compared to one another and some intriguing results were discovered.

This data revealed some interesting concepts about the formulation of stream morphology. By discovering the depth to bedrock, a more precise idea of downcutting and alluvial build up in particular sections became evident. The data suggests that there is build up in the midstream section and possibly sharper downcutting in the upstream and downstream sections.

After further analyzes, some historical events which caused changes in stream sections became evident. And, the data also revealed that the middle section of Gator Run is undergoing natural recovery from a past flooding event.

Name: Barbara Drbal
Major: Environmental Studies
Thesis Committee: Rich Bowden, Jim Palmer

Title: Effects of differing deer densities on soil respiration in clearcut areas of the Allegheny National Forest.

This study was designed to examine effects of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginana) densities on soil respiration in the Allegheny National Forest (ANF). Pennsylvania. Two locations, Deadman Corners and Fool's Creek, within the ANF, were used to conduct this study. Three deer densities were examined 0, 10, and 80 per 259 hectares, certain areas of the 80 density plots were so heavily browsed that they failed to regenerate. These areas were also studied and labelled 80F. Soil respiration rates were gathered via the soda lime technique. Measurements were collected on a monthly basis from April through October.

Respiration rates in all four treatments followed the same trends through time. These trends correlated with air temperature. Increased deer densities had a significant affect on soil respiration. In general, soil respiration rates increased with temperature. The only exception to this was in 10 plots which had slightly lower efflux rate than the 0 plots. This difference, however, was not determined to be significant. The highest mean efflux rate, spanning the study period was 91.0 mgC/m2/h from the 80F density plot. While the lowest mean effiux rate. 78.9 mgC/m2/h, was at the 10 density plot. Significant differences, determined by a Duncan multiple range test, were found between 10 and 80, 10 and 80F, and 0 and 80F. I hypothesize that these differences are a result of differing temperatures, root density, root type, and litter quality.

Name: Richard J. Dudley
Date: April 24, 1992
Major: Environmental Science
Thesis Committee: Dr. Milt Ostrofsky, Dr. Scott Wissinger

Title: A Laboratory Comparison Between Allochthonous and Autochthonous Matter and the Effects Upon the Life History of the Amphipod Allocrangonyx (Gasimaridae).

An investigation into nutritional differences between allochthonous matter and autochthonous matter was conducted studying growth rates and survivorship of populations of the amphipod Allocrangonyx fed on each type of matter. Results show that allochthonous matter supports a population significantly better than does autochthonous matter, but there is no significant difference in growth rate.

Additionally, the change in nitrogen content while leaves are conditioned was investigated. Results show that after an initial drop in nitrogen content, nitrogen content rises again, increasing the nutritional value of leaves.

Nitrogen content of conditioned leaves was compared to that of epilithon. Results show that percent nitrogen values of epilithon and conditioned leaves are similar, although the significance of this similarity was not determined.

Name: Erin D. Dwyer
Date: April 17, 1992
Major: Environmental Studies
Thesis Committee: Dr. Wissinger and Dr. Rankin

Title: Society Versus Science: A Study of Freshwater Finfish Aquaculture in China and the United States

Freshwater finfish culture has been a time-honored tradition and way of life for the people of China, especially in the southeast part of the country. China is also the largest aquaculture producer in the world, but their method of fish production is mainly subsistent in nature. The United States has only practiced fish culture for a relatively short period of time and trails far behind China in aquaculture production.

The purpose of this study was to determine the factors that have led to the differences exhibited in the amount and type of aquaculture production in China and the United States. Factors considered for each country were: the history of aquaculture, differences in geography and topography, traditional use of land and water resources, and cultural differences, including traditional food preferences. agro-economics, societal structure, degree of government involvement, religions, and philosophies.

There were no major geographical or topographical differences that could explain the differences in importance of aquaculture in the two societies. Instead, I found that the history of aquaculture was inextricably intertwined with the different cultural aspects of each country. The mainly subsistent and integrative approach to aquaculture in China is in contrast to the highly technological and big business approach to rearing finfish in the United States. Thus, I conclude that differences in style and amounts of aquaculture production in the two countries is part of a more pervasive difference in the way food is produced in each society.

Name: Elizabeth E. Erb
Date: Spring 1992
Major: Environmental Studies
Thesis Committee: Scott Wissinger, Marie Azzarello

Title: Children and the Future of Our Environment: A Workbook Building Positive Environmental Attitudes and Values.

The purpose of this project was to compile a workbook for fourth grade students that would help to instill positive environmental attitudes and values within the child.

This workbook attempts to formulate positive environmental attitudes and values by using various vehicles of environmental education. Environmental education stresses the interrelationships of man and nature, and the importance that the environment plays in every aspect of our lives. This idea is the basis for integration of the workbook activities into various fields of discipline. Fundamental environmental themes were used as vehicles to try and reach the goal of developing long lasting environmental values and attitudes.

It was important for this project to understand how fourth graders learn and what teaching techniques are most beneficial in retention of subject matter. Studies done by Jean Piaget were used to determine such ideas.

Lastly, in order to be able to implement a workbook into any school system, studies on the successes and failures of the national and state wide environmental education movement were included. Thus narrowing down the list of states with and without active environmental education programs, determining where it might be most beneficial to implement such a workbook.

Name: Carlos Escalante
Date: December 20, 1991
Major: Environmental Science
Thesis Committee: Scott Wissinger, Marie Azzarello

Title: The Effect of the Carbamate, Larvin, on the Survival and Growth of the Xanthid Mud-Crab, Rhithropanopeus harrisii (Gould)

A bioassay was developed to study the effects of the carbamate pesticide Larvin, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, on the chronic toxicity. regeneration, and intermolt period of the mud-crab Rhithropanopeus harrisii and to provide insight as to their mode of action. This bioassay involves rearing Rhithropanopeus from the larval megalopa stage to the third juvenile crab with daily monitoring of survival, regeneration and molting during continuous exposure to the pesticide. Survival was significantly lower at higher concentrations of Larvin in each stage tested. The chronic toxicity of Larvin was measured by finding the maximum acceptable toxicant concentration (MATC). MATC is expressed as the range between the lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) and the highest no observed effect concentration (NOEC). For each of the molts, the MATC was determined to be l5ppb to 100pp. Regeneration at all three crabs stages was not affected by Larvin. Prolonged intermolt periods were observed in the molt from Crab I to Crab II, while reduced intermolt periods were observed in the molt between Crab II to Crab III. There was no effect of Larvin on the intermolt period from Megalopa to Crab I. Larvin exerts multiple effects (chronic [survival] and sublethal [intermolt duration]) ib tge karvae abd hyvebukes if Rhithropanopeus harrisii. This suggests that if the inadvertant runoff from agricultural areas ever reached the concentrations used in this study. Rhithropanopeus may be one non-target organism affected.

Name: Jason Garrison
Date: 4/17/92
Major: Environmental Science
Thesis Committee: Rich Bowden, Milton Ostrofsky

Title: Contribution of aboveground litter, belowground litter, and root respiration to total soil respiration in a mixed temperate hardwood forest.

Contrasting aboveground and belowground inputs of leaf litter, and root growth were established in 21 3x3 meter plots to determine how much the individual components of decomposing aboveground litter (AG), decomposing belowground litter (BG), and root respiration (RR) contribute to total soil respiration in a mixed hardwood forest ecosystem. Fourteen daily CO2 flux measurements were recorded at the Harvard Forest in Petersham Massachusetts during the summer months of June, July, and August. Carbon dioxide flux rates were measured using a soda-lime technique. Decomposing aboveground litter was calculated to be the largest contributor to soil CO2 evolution. Decomposing aboveground litter accounted for 40% of the calculated annual CO2 flux, while decomposing belowground litter accounted, and root respiration accounted for 27.1% and 32.8% of total soil rerspiration rates respectively. The annual soil respiration rate for this stand was determined to be 344.8 gC/m2/yr.

NAME: Gail L. Gumbert
DATE: April 17, 1992
MAJOR: Environmental Studies
THESIS COMMITTEE: Rich Bowlen, Jim Pa]insr

TITLE: Effects of Whited-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginana) Densities on Soil Chemical Properties In Regenerating Clearcut Hardwood Stands in the Allegheny National Forest

Effects of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginana) density on soil pH, Cation Exchange Capacity, nitrogen and carbon were examined in a regenerating clearcut hardwood stands in the Allegheny National Forest, PA. The plots within the two study sites (Deadman Corners and Fool's Creek) were maintained at deer densities of 0 deer/259 ha, 10 deer/259 ha and 80 deer/259 ha in the clearcut areas at both sites for eleven years prior to soil analyses. An area that failed to regenerate in the 80 deer/259 ha at both sites was also sampled in the study. Soil properties that were tested were pH, Cation Exchange Capacity, carbon content, and nitrogen contents in 0-5cm and 5-10cm depths were examined. The results showed a significant differences in the CEC between the different deer densities in the 5-10 cm soils at Deadman Corners, with the CEC in the failed area being significantly higher than the other plots. There were significant differences found in nitrogen percentages in the 0-5 cm soils at Deadman Corners.

NAME: Charles Hasselback
DATE: April 17, 1992
MAJOR: Environmental Science
THESIS COMMITTEE: Dr. Ostrofsky, Dr. Palmer

TITLE: An Annual Budget of Allochthonous vs. Autochthonous Energy Input to a Deciduous Pennsylvania Stream

Allocthonous material is believed to be the chief annual contributor of energy, in the form of fixed carbon, to deciduous stream ecosystems. This study conducted at Sandy Run in Meadville, Pennsylvania supports this belief. Allochthonous material contribution contributed 119,110 mg/C/m2 annually, while autochthonous material contributed 39,357 mg/C/m2 to Sandy Run annually.

Further analysis showed that although allochthonous contribution was roughly 75% greater then autochthonous production annually, from January to June autochthonous production was greater then allochthonous energy production. This study suggests autochthonous production is a major contributor to a stream energy budget from late winter through early summer.

NAME: Mark Lemmeyer
DATE: February 20, 1992
MAJORS: Environmental Studies and Economics
THESIS COMMITTEE: Mark Lord, A. Afrasiabi, A. Moskwa

TITLE: Pennsylvania Act 101 of 1988: A State's Attempt to Correct a National Problem.

Recycling is a method of increasing the efficiency of resource allocations because it leads to: decreased reusable material waste and therefore reducted raw material extraction; reduced virgin product production externalities (pollution); and finally, reduced landfilling and its associated environmental hazards. Recycling newspapers has not been an attractive alternative to virgin newsprint production in the past because of the lack of property rights for the environment. This has led to artificially low and stable input prices for virgin newsprint production that has made it more attractive than recycling old newspapers (ONP).

These problems are exacerbated by the U.S. Forest Service, which has enacted policies that create artificially low and stable prices for timber products. Specifically, it has ignored the externalities that are present in timber extraction when pricing timber sales, sold timber below cost, and uses accounting methods that cannot properly value resources without property rights.

Act 101 of 1988 is a response to the public outcry over the waste disposal shortage. It aims to reduce the volume of waste generated and increase municipal recycling to 25 percent by 1997, however, it will also lead to a more efficient resource allocation.

Since its implementation, state legislators have been able to get commitments from several Pennsylvania newspapers to use 50 percent recycled newsprint by 1995. In addition, there has been an active search for alternative markets for ONP, including: molded pulp products, hydromulch, and animal bedding. However, at this time there is insufficient data for a statistical analysis of the law's performance in terms of the percentage of ONP collected that has actually been used. Hence, one can only compare the law to various alternative approaches that might have been taken by the state.

These approaches include: waiting for technological advance to make ONP recycling more attractive; using public education; using command and control techniques (such as recycled content legislation, and a buffer stock scheme): using price incentives (such as higher waste disposal fees. subsidizing ONP recyclers, and taxing virgin paper); changing forest management techniques; eliminating the forestry industry's favorable tax treatment; and changing national income measures.

Of these proposed solutions, three of the potentially most important are beyond the scope of Pennsylvania legislators (changing forest management techniques, eliminating favorable tax treatment, and changing national income measures). For this reason Act 101 appears to be well-designed to achieve its goals, although a percent recycled content provision and higher waste disposal fees might have made recycling even more likely.

NAME: Paul Lockwood
DATE: April 17, 1992
MAJOR: Environmental Science
THESIS COMMITTEE: Dr. Milton Ostrofsky, Dr. Richard Bowden

TITLE: Effects of Copper Sulfate on the Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Growth of Lemna minor: Effectiveness of Lemna minor for Bioassays

The validity of using Lemna minor as a bioassay organism was explored. By testing the difference in the growth rate between autotrophic growth versus autotrophic growth coupled with heterotrophic growth this question was examined. This was done by testing the growth rate of Lemna minor between two different medias. One medium was nutrient and mineral-free (REC), while the other had nutrients and minerals (NEW). Also, the effects of culture container size on growth rate was tested by using two different size cultures. One culture contained 25 mL of medium and the other contained 300 mL. Copper sulfate at five different concentrations (0.000, 0.125, 0.250, 0.500, and 1.000 all in mg/L) was used. All cultures were grown for 7 days at 25.1°C and 180fc of light. Growth rate, root length frond size and total amount of fronds, all decreased with an increase of the concentration of copper. The NEW medium had a significantly higher growth rate than the REC medium. The 25 mL cup had a higher growth rate than the 300 mL cup.

NAME: Kimberly McCracken
DATE:April 8, 1992
MAJOR: Environmental Science
THESIS COMMITTEE: Richard Bowden and James Palmer

TITLE: INFLUENCES OF WHITE-TAILED DEER (ODOCOILEUS VIRGINANA) DENSITIES ON LITTERFALL IN REGENERATING CLEARCUT HARDWOOD STANDS IN THE ALLEGHENY NATIONAL FOREST

This study examined effects of different deer (Odocoileus virginianus) densities on litterfall quantity, seasonality, species composition, and litter quality in two 10 year-old regenerating clearcut hardwood stands in the Allegheny National Forest in northwestern Pennsylvania. Three deer densities (representing 0, 10 and 80 deer/259 ha) were examined as well as areas of regeneration failure (80-failed) in high density plots. Litterfall data were collected from April to November.

Litterfall in all treatments displayed a distinct seasonality, with the highest quantity in fall. Litterfall quantity did not differ significantly between the four treatments. However, species composition was affected by deer density. Litterfall from yellow birch (Betula allegheniesis) and red maple (Acer rubrum), preferred browse species, was less in high deer density plots than low deer density areas. However, pin cherry (Prunus pensylvanica), also sensitive to browsing appeared to be relatively unaffected. Quantity of black cherry (Prunus serotina) litterfall, a species less sensitive to browsing, was greater at high deer densities. The most important shift in species composition was in 80-failed plots where hardwoods have failed to regenerate and grass and ferns dominate. In these areas, grass and fern litter comprised 68% and 63% of total litter inputs. This shift in species composition alters litterfall quality (C/N) and can affect decomposition rate and nutrient availability. Although carbon and nitrogen inputs at each stand were not significantly different, C/N ratios were more variable. There was no clear trend in C/N at different treatments, however, the highest C/N (lowest quality) was reported at one 80-failed area.

At this time there are few significant differences in litterfall among treatments, however, some differences are becoming apparent and may be more easily recognized over a longer study period.

NAME: Julia Meredith
DATE: April 17, 1992
MAJOR: Environmental Science
THESIS COMMITTEE: Dr. Ron Mumme, Dr. Scott Wissinger

TITLE: The effect of management practices on avian abundance and species diversity in a transmission line right-of-way

Avian abundance and species diversity were examined in the Wayne-Erie West 345,000 volt transmission line corridor maintained by the Pennsylvania Electric Company (Penelec) in Crawford County, Pennsylvania. Based on the extensive research performed by W.C. Bramble and W.R. Byrnes in central Pennsylvania, differences in abundance and diversity were expected due to differences in corridor management. Penelec maintains the corridors by mowing, handcutting, or spraying with herbicide to eliminate vegetation that may cause grounding of the wires and resultant fires. Both handcutting and spraying result in a heterogeneous habitat with a mixture of grasses, low shrubs, and standing dead trees. Mowing results in a homogeneous cover of grasses, with little or no shrub cover. Stretches of corridor that abutted forested lands were censused from 23 October 1991 until 5 March 1992. Observations consisted of recording species, number of individuals of each species, activity observed, and longitudinal location within the corridor. Statistically significant results indicate that avian abundance and species diversity is higher in sprayed and handcut areas than in mowed areas, with open woodland species dominating. Sensible use of herbicides is recommended for corridor maintenance to provide an attractive habitat for birds.

NAME: William Joshua Ringle
DATE: April 30,1992
MAJOR: Environmental Science
THESIS COMMITTEE: Professor Mark Lord and Chaplain Don Skinner

TITLE: The Application of Energy Conservation Techniques to a Habitat for Humanity House Design.

American households currently use 5% of the total world energy produced each year. Questions have been raised as to whether the sustained high levels of energy usage in the United States and the world has had serious and potentially irreversible effects on the environment. Problems such as acid rain and the greenhouse effect have begun to draw attention in both the scientific world and the general public. Electric energy production and home energy usage contribute to the production of nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide that create the above mentioned environmental problems. To determine if the increase in residential energy consumption can be reduced or at least slowed, energy saving materials and techniques were applied to a Habitat for Humanity house design. The techniques and materials were evaluated in terms of their overall cost vs. their financial and environmental savings.

Heat loss and the major sources of residential energy usage were addressed. Heat loss was studied from two different perspectives. In the first case, energy saving improvement such as higher levels of insulation, double pane windows and reduced air infiltration, were applied to the external shell of the house. A heat calculation was performed on the house using each one of the improvements as an individual independent variable. The resulting hourly winter heating demand figures were compared to the heating demand of the non-improved or base house to determine the savings of each improvement. Secondly, landscaping was evaluated for its ability to reduce the outside environmental extremes of summer sun and winter wind that increase the energy needed to cool and heat the home. Lastly, the three main sources of residential energy consumption--space heating, water heating and lighting--were evaluated for ways to improve their efficiency. An energy usage comparison was performed between incandescent bulbs and compact fluorescent bulbs while energy improvements to the furnace and hot water tank were conducted based on the percentage of energy that they saved.

Overall, the yearly energy savings that can be achieved by implementing all of the discussed improvements more that doubles the projected purchase cost spread out over a fifteen year no interest mortgage. At current energy prices, the initial added improvement cost of $3,158.35 results in a projected financial savings of $23,146.59 over the fifty year life of the home. Part of the environmental savings include a 5.22 ton reduction in the amount of CO2 released into the atmosphere. Adding extra insulation produces a limited savings, while sealing the home from air leakage saves twice as much energy. Ironically, some of the most effective measures like water flow restrictors and water pipe heat traps, are the cheapest to implement. Except for the planting of trees and installing double pane windows, each product or technique produces energy and financial savings that far outweigh their initial cost.

NAME: George Schuler
DATE: 4/30/92
MAJOR: Environmental Science
THESIS COMMITTEE: Dr. Richard Bowden and Dr. Ron Mumme

TITLE: Livestock Predation by Canis lupus in Minnesota: Implications of Seasonal or Non-seasonal Activity.

This study tested the hypothesis that wolf predation of cattle, sheep, pigs, and turkey in Minnesota is seasonal. This was tested, by collecting livestock predation report numbers, verification numbers, numbers of cattle, sheep, pigs, turkeys, deer, moose, and wolves over time. Data were obtained from the Minnesota State Office of Game Control, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, the Minnesota State Office of Agricultural Statistics, the Minnesota State Office of Accounting, and the United States Department of Agriculture. Results indicate that wolf predation on the four types of livestock observed is seasonal and, in some cases, at an increasing rate. Results also indicate that this is, in part, due to an increase in the numbers of certain types of livestock, animal husbandry techniques and the natural seasonal feeding patterns of wolves and the life cycle of their main prey, deer.

NAME: Sarah Spaulding
DATE: April 12, 1992
MAJOR: Environmental Science
THESIS COMMITTEE: Scott Wissinger, Mark Lord

Title: Acid Sensitivities in Three Species of Stream-side Salamanders, Desmognathus fuscus, D. ochrophaeus and Eurycea bislineata

Acid precipitation problems and questions have recently arisen, and studies have been conducted on the effects of acid rain on the world's stream ecosystems. Numerous investigators have linked amphibian decline to the effects of acid rain. This is especially found in Northeastern North America where a number of studies have shown various harmful effects that acidic conditions have on a variety of pond-dwelling frogs and salamanders. However, very little is known about the specific effects of acid deposition on stream-side organisms, particularly salamanders. Acid fluctuations may be episodic and heavier during periods of peak flow so behavior may vary in different regions. This study was conducted to determine the extent of acid sensitivity in three species of stream-side salamanders in western Pennsylvania. The species used were Desmognathus fuscus. D. ochrophaeus and Eurycea bislineata, and they were observed both in the field at Allegheny College's Bousson Environmental Research Reserve and in the lab under controlled conditions. Quantitative observations were made about the animals' distribution and abundance in the field, and they were found to exist in specific degrees of terrestrialism. D. ochrophaeus is the most terrestrial, D. fuscus is the most aquatic and E. bislineata is in between the two. The populations of each specie were found to decrease down the length of one of the streams studied. In the lab, the animals were exposed to six substrates of different pH's for one hour at a time and allowed to choose one. No significance was found for D. fuscus and D. ochrophaeus in their preferences, but E. bislineata preferred pH levels of >5.0 compared to pH<5.O. There was a significant difference found for E. bislineata; they are acid sensitive in the short term. However, D. fuscus and D. ochrophaeus are acid-insensitive under the same conditions. These results suggest that different species of stream. side salamanders are affected differently by acid deposition.

NAME: Karen Steer
DATE: December, 1991
MAJOR: Environmental Science
THESIS COMMITTEE: Dr. Jim Palner/Dr. Ron Mumme

TITLE: A Study of the Effects of Sublethal Concentrations of the Carbamate Larvin on Survival and Viability of the Larval Grass Shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio (Holthuis)

Aquatic toxicity tests were used to assess the sublethal effects of the synthetic hydrocarbon, Thiodicarb (Larvin®) on larval grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio. Three bioassays were conducted: survival, intermolt period and duration to metamorphosis in various exposure regimens; transmittability of Larvin® from ovigerous female to embryos; and chromatophore abnormalities expressed in contaminated larvae. A 96-hour acute toxicity test determined the LC50 to be 93.7 ppb. The four-day, eight-day and continuous exposure experiments all showed a significant net decrease in survival of Palaemonetes larvae with an increase in Larvin® concentrations. A significant reduction in hatchsize resulted when the embryos of ovigerous females were exposed to Larvin®. Hatchability and post-hatch viability of larvae did not significantly vary from experimental to control. Finally, chromatophore expressions became significantly more diffuse in larvae exposed to increasing concentrations of Larvin®. An increase in larval developmental stage also corrolated significantly to a decrease in chromatophore expression.

Coastal North Carolina is the home for both estuaries and Agricultural fields. Runoff of pesticides into the aquatic ecosystems has the potential for causing serious deleterious effects on the marine community. The non-targeted crustacean, Palaemonetes, is one such species which may be affected. If Larvin® were to reach estuarine waters in concentrations exceeding the sublethal threshold of P. pugio, then the whole community may be altered.

Name: Douglas K. Tucker
Major: Environmental Studies
Thesis Committee: Dr. Mark Lord, Dr. Ahmad Afrasiabi

Title: An Evaluation of Alternative Daily Cover Materials In Sanitary Landfills

Currently, landfills serve as a crucial disposal method for 80-90% of the solid waste generated in the U.S. Landfills are closing at a dramatic rate, and new landfills are becoming increasingly expensive to construct. A modification in the choice of daily cover material can reduce soil input and save as much as 30% of the usable landfill space.

Recent technology and innovation have provided a solution to the conflicts of daily cover. New alternative daily cover materials (ADCMs) consist of commercially manufactured foams, slurries, and reusable tarps or geotextiles. Solid wastes similar in composition to soil may also be used as cover material. ADCMs are currently being built into the daily operations of landfills instead of the traditional six inch soil layer because they can perform the same functions of a six inch soil layer, without wasting valuable landfill volume. Some of the ADCMs allow for daily monetary savings, but the greatest savings valued by landfill operators is the long term increase in available air-space.

The purpose of this study was to determine if ADCMs are an economically and environmentally legitimate alternative to soil as daily cover. Six commercially manufactured ADCMs were evaluated as sixteen landfills currently using the products. Evaluation criteria of the ADCMs included their monetary cost, ability to withstand climate and other physical conditions, longevity, and ease of application. Four ADCM types were thoroughly evaluated in case studies. Four landfills currently using only soil for daily cover were also evaluated; three of these landfills were the subject of case studies that analyzed the costs and benefits of using an ADCM in place of soil.

Based upon a compilation and analysis of comments from ADCM manufacturers and users of the products, it was determined that the ADCMs are a viable alternative to soil. Alternative daily cover materials vary in cost and usability. Weather conditions may limit the usefulness of the ADCM. and soil is still needed for functions such as intermediate cover, access roads within the landfill, and fire prevention. Despite the savings associated with ADCMs, some landfill managers opt for soil cover because they are not aware of the potential long term savings. Regulations governing ADCMs are another obstacle that discourages landfills from using ADCMs. As regulators become more flexible with daily cover requirements, landfills will be more able and willing to reduce soil use and begin reaping the benefits of low-volume alternative daily cover materials.

NAME: Christopher H. Valcheff
DATE: April 17, 1992
MAJOR: Environmental Science
THESIS COMMITTEE: Mark Lord and Tom Dougan

Title: The Application of Hydraulic Conductivity and Porosity of Two Common Soil Types (Glacial Till and Outwash) of Crawford County. Pennsylvania to Predict Petroleum Migration Through Soils and Probable Extent of Pollution in Groundwater

As society becomes more and more dependent on petroleum products, the possibility of surface petroleum spills increases. Surface petroleum spills can contaminate the soils and groundwater in any area, including Crawford County, Pennsylvania. Research was performed to predict the nature of migration pathways of petroleum through two common soil types of Crawford County, Pennsylvania and the probable rate and path of petroleum in groundwater.

Core samples were taken of each horizon of soils developed in glacial outwash (Red Hook soil series) and soils developed in glacial till (Cambridge soil series). Each sample was tested for hydraulic conductivity of water and oil with a constant head permeameter. Porosity was measured for each soil series. Each soil horizon was scaled to fit in a groundwater tank and a surface petroleum spill was introduced to the system.

In the Red Hook series, average hydraulic conductivIty was 3.155 x 10-2 m/s using water as the conducting medium and 3.261 x 10-4 m/s using mineral oil as the medium. The average porosity was 16.81% for the Red Hook soil series. In the Cambridge soil series, the average hydraulic conductivity was 2.13 x l0-3 m/s using water as the conducting medium, and 1.36 x 10-5 m/s using mineral oil as the conducting medium. The average porosity of the Cambridge soil series was 22.78%. It was found that porosity and hydraulic conductivity decreased with depth.

Based on this data, it was predicited that contamination would occur most rapidly and to the greatest extent in the Red Hook soils as compared to the Cambridge soils. The Red Hook soil series allowed the petroleum spill to infiltrate and migrate through the soil about twice as fast as the Cambridge soils. Once in contact with the water table, migration rates for both soil series increased dramatically. Migration rate of the petroleum contamination plume for the Red Hook soils was 15 cm/s. For the Cambridge soil series, the contaminate plume migration was only 8cm/s.

Based on this data, a surface petroleum spill that occurs on soils developed in glacial outwash will have a greater extent of pollution than a surface petroleum spill that occurs on soils developed in glacial till.

NAME: Elizabeth H. Willson
Date: 4/27/92
MAJORS: Environmental Studies and Economics
THESIS COMMITTEE: Dr. James Palmer, Ahmad Afrasiabi, Dr. Scott Wissinger

TITLE: A Study of Market Failure Resulting in the Production of Waste: A Quantitative Analysis of the Allegheny College Dining Service and It's Production of Food Waste

Source reduction has been deemed the strategy to reduce municipal solid waste. Allegheny College practices source reduction with a developed recycling program. Food waste constitutes 16.7% of all municipal solid waste and 63% of Allegheny College's municipal solid waste. (Neal & Schubel,1987, Pallant & Palmer, 1991) The current meal plan system used at the college charges the student by meal not by the foods they choose to eat. A meal plan where the student does pay by item of food was found at Slippery Rock University. To test the hypothesis that less food waste per person would be generated under the pay by item meal plan, an experiment comparing the weight of food waste produced per person under both meal plan systems was done. The food waste production under the pay by item meal plan was found to be significantly less. Students paying with their meal card, at Allegheny College, were also found to waste more food than those paying with cash, however, not at a significant level. Economic theory explains this difference in waste production by making an analogy between the behavior of the dining student and the treatment by society of 'public goods'. Public goods being those which are consumed without rivalry.

10/2004 ls